B 919,916 Digitized by Google Original from UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN UNIVERSITY TH SHE OF MIC MI Digitized by Google MICHIGAN GAN LIBRARIES Original from UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN Digitized by Google UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN Original from I-E 77-902798 Chaudhuri, Pabitra Kumar. Political concepts in ancient India: a glossary of political terms / P. K. Chaudhuri. - New Delhi : S. Chand, 1977. xvi, 190 p. ; 23 cm. Originally presented as the author's thesis, Gauhati University. Bibliography: p. 185-190. R$30.00 30Ap77 DKP CB BKB I-E-27313 15 Special Foreign Currency Program. The Library of Congress Provided by Digitized by Google Original from UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN POLITICAL CONCEPTS IN ANCIENT INDIA A Glossary of Political Terms Digitized by Google Original from UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN Digitized by Google Original from UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN 1 POLITICAL CONCEPTS IN ANCIENT INDIA A Glossary of Political Terms P. K. CHAUDHURI = S.Chand & Company Ltd RAM NAGAR, NEW DELHI-110055 Digitized by Google Original from UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN JA (4 'S26 C48 1977 S. CHAND & COMPANY LTD Ram Nagar, New Delhi-110055 Show Room: 4/16-B, ASAF ALI ROAD, NEW DELHI-110002 Branches Mai Hiran Gate, Jullundur-144008 285/J, Bipin Bebari Ganguly Street, Calcutta-700012 Aminabad Park, Lucknow-226001 Blackie House 103/5 Walchand Hirachand Marg, Bombay-400001 35, Mount Road, Madras-600002 Khazanchi Road, Patna-800004 Sultan Bazar, Hyderabad-500001 KPCC Bldg., Race Course Road Bangalore-560009 3, Gandhi Sagar East Nagpur-440002 Published with the financial assistance from the Ministry of Education and Social Welfare, Government of India. Digitized by First published 1977 Published by S. Chand & Company Ltd, Ram Nagar, New Delhi-110055 and printed at Rajendra Ravindra Printers (Pvt) Ltd, Ram Nagar, New Delhi-110055 Google Original from UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN Dedicated to the memory of my late father, Rohini Kumar Chaudhuri, who has always been a source of inspiration to me in my pursuit of knowledge Digitized by Google Original from UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN It has been the aim of the author to acquaint students interested in the study of ancient Indian History with the fundamentals of political terminology. Preface Man has come up to his present stage of living through a series of steps in civilization, beginning with a stone age, followed by a bronze age, an iron age etc. These various stages of human development have been modified by the persistent influence of local environment of the people. Religious organisations grew with that society; contacts with strangers possessed of better weapon, tools, clothing, etc. or even good food stuffs or valuable resources: agricultural or mineral, led to war or trade, according to the relative strengths and dispositions of the parties. Internecine wars, or natural calamities have driven people to migration or invasions. All these have greatly influenced the political conditions of the country leading to changes in polity and apolitical thoughts. In undertaking any study it is necessary to look to the historical background, as many of the current views and practices are more or less traditional having been handed down from one generation to another. It is also necessary to know the origin of some of the ancient notions in order to be able to judge more accurately as to their correctness, Digitized by Google Original from UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN There are two ways of studying the political institutions of any society either analysing the ideas pronounced by the historical personalities or subjecting the ancient works to a kind of language analysis. In the West, this mode of content analysis has come into vogue, behaviourists, structuralists and logicists follow this mode of analysis, especially in the USA and the U.K. viii This work, though it does not intend to propound a system of analysis, however it attempts to provide the raw materials for those who wish to study ancient Indian polity through the window of language analysis. This work was initiated in London under the inspiration received from Professor A.L. Basham who was author's teacher in the University. Author's subsequent assignments prevented him from continuing the work in London and he had to return to India. The writer is glad to have this opportunity of expressing his heartfelt thanks to Professor Basham for his helpful guidance and, the great interest he has shown during the initial stage of the work. On his return to India, the writer had the privilege of continuing the work under the personal guidance of Professor Mukunda Madhava Sharma, Head of the Department of Sanskrit, Gauhati University. He is particularly indebted to Professor Sharma for his unending kindness in helping him to clear up many points in connection with the preparation of this work. Grateful acknowledgements are also due to Mrs. Elima Sharma, learned wife of Professor Sharma, for her Digitized by Google Original from UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN ix ungrudging help in putting the diacritical marks in the type copies of the work which was subsequently accepted as thesis for the award of the Ph. D. degree of the Gauhati University. Finally, grateful thanks are tendered to Shri D. K. Borooah, President of the Indian National Congress for his usual generosity in helping the author with his vast treasure of erudite scholarship covering a wide variety of subjects. It was his inspiration that led the author to publish this work. P. K. CHAUDHURI Digitized by Google Original from UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN Digitized by Google Original from UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN ( এতী % कै । मैं া al ah art ভু ভু अ आ इ ओ अं श्रः ख ग घ this Ip 150 15 hr ज झ ञ ट Digitized by Scheme of Transliteration — a ದ a i i PBB u ū H ai 0 au an ah . k kh g gh i ch j jh n t Google भय 41964GOI ठ ड ढ ण त थ प फ ब भ No Im म य र ल व श ह ज्ञ th d dh n th d dh n p ph b bh y s' •0 h kş jn Original from UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN Digitized by Google Original from UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN 1 AB Amara AS' AS' Basak AS' Trans Apte AS PI AWAI Ep. Ind. Gautama D.S. Glossary HD HP IAB List of Abbreviations Mbh (MBH) Digitized by .. .. Google Aitareya Brahmana Amarakosa of Amarasimha Arthasastra Arthasastra ed by R.G. Basak Arthasastra translated by R. Shamasastry The Students Sanskrit English Dictionary by V. S. Apte The Allahabad Store Pillar Inscription of Samudragupta The Art of War in Ancient India Epigraphia Indica Gautama Dharma Sutra Indian Epigraphical Glossary by D. C. Sircar History of Dharmasastras by MM.P.V. Kane Hindu Polity by K.P. Jayaswal India in the Age of the Brahmanas by J. R. Basu Mahabharata Original from UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN Manu Sam. MS SGAI SNS Yajnavalkya Digitized by .. xiv Manu Samhita Do. State and Government in Ancient India by A.S. Altekar Sukranitisara Yajnavalkya Smrti Google Original from UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN Scheme of Transliteration List of Abbreviations Introduction Glossary A A U E AU ΚΑ KHA GA CA JA ΤΑ DA DHA ΝΑ PA BA BHA Table of Contents Digitized by Google : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : xi xiii-xiv 1-28 31-184 31-51 51-57 57-64 64 64 65-72 72 73-79 79-81 81-84 84-86 86-96 97-99 99-102 102-115 115 118 119-122 Original from UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN MA YA RA LA VA Ś • cs Ş SA HA Bibliography Digitized by Google xvi : : .. .. : : : : : : 123-135 135-138 138-148 148 148-159 159-164 164-166 166-184 184 185-190 Original from UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN Introduction samāno mantraḥ samitiḥ samānī samānaṁ manaḥ saha cittam eṣām (Rgveda, x.191.3a) (Same be their counsel, same their assembly, same their mind and same their heart....). This is an oftquoted prayer from the Rgveda where we have two technical terms, viz., Mantra and Samiti, relevant to the study of ancient Indian politics. The term Samiti refers to a popular assembly and from the other term Mantra we can gather that the said assembly used to indulge in deliberations aiming at and resulting in state policies. Some other lines of the Rgveda, containing the term Samiti, are (i) rājā na na satyaḥ satyaḥ samitiriyanaḥ (IX.92.6) (like a true king going to the Samiti) (ii) Yatrauṣadhīḥ samagmata rājānaḥ samitāviva (X.97.6) (where the herbs met like kings in the Samiti). In these two quotations we have another important term Rājā (king), which should unequivocally imply that there was the institution of Kingship in the Vedic age. Another popular assembly, of a size bigger than that of the Samiti, which also met with 1 Digitized by Google Original from UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN .. 2 Political Concepts in Ancient India some political programme was the Sabha. This term also occurs in the Rgveda, as in the passage, sarve nandanti yaśasāgatena sabhasahena sakhyā sakhāyaḥ (X.71.10) (All the friends rejoice in the company of a friend, come back successful from a Sabha). Thus, we see that the Rgveda is the earliest original source where we may find casual references to certain political ideas and institutions of ancient India. Other Early Original Sources Another early original source for the compilation of political terms is the Atharvaveda. An interesting passage, which we may cite here, is that where the already mentioned institutions, Sabhā and Samiti are described as two sisters, being the two daughters of Prajapati: sabhā ca ma samitiścāvatāṁ prajapaterduhitarau samvidāne (Atharvaveda, 7.13) (May the Samiti and the Sabhā, the two daughters of Prajapati, concurrently aid me). The Yajurveda has two broad divisions, viz., the White Yajurveda (Suklayajurveda) and the Black Yajurveda (Krsna Yajurveda). The latter one has three recensions (Sakhas), viz., Taittiriya Samhita, Maitrāyani Samhita and the Katha or (Kathaka)-Samhita. All these three recensions are very important for our study because of containing lists of the Ratnins or high functionaries of the King of the Vedic age. The Brāhmaṇa Literature as an Early Source The Brāhmaṇa literature is still richer in respect of socio-cultural data concerning ancient Indian Digitized by Google Original from UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN Introduction political ideas and institutions. The Taittiriya Brāhmaṇa, Satapatha Brahmana and the Aitareya Brāhmaṇa contain details of the coronation ceremony, the Vajapeya ritual and the Aśvamedha sacrifice. Aitareya Brāhmaṇa, I. 14, gives us the earliest legend on the origin of Kingship. In the same work we have the description of the royal consecration under the title of Indra-mahābhiseka (VIII.14 to VIII.19) which is a veritable feast for the modern critical writers on ancient Indian polity because of containing the very significant but deluding terms like Bhaujya, Svārājya, Vairājya, etc. From these more important Brāhmaṇas, further informations can be gathered regarding the topics like the relation between the ruler and the ruled, the members of the royal family and their position and the art of war in the contemporary society.¹ The vedic literature comprising the Samhitas and the Brāhmaṇas may be placed between 1500 and 1000 B.C. or the lower limit may be brought down by two or three centuries more.³ The Early Smritis or Dharmasutras The early Smritis or Dharmasūtras like those of Gautama, Apastamba, Vasistha, Baudhayana and Visņu, which belong to a period between 600 and 100 B.C., also occupy an important position in the study of ancient Indian politics. These works throw light on the political ideals of the day by way of defining the duties and responsibilities of 1. Basu, IAB. PP. 115-130. 2. Ghoshal, HIPI, p. xxi. 3. Basham, The Wonder That was India, p. 81. 3 Digitized by Google Original from UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN PAREMA Political Concepts in Ancient India the King as the custodian of law and social order. For example, according to Gautama (IX.9.10) the King should lead back to the path of duty those who have shunned it; according to Apastamba (II.10.27. 18-19) the King should punish all those who violate the duty of their respective order. According to a general observation of Vișnu (III.3) also, "the King should make the four castes and the four orders observe their respective duties." According to Vasistha (XIX.7-8), the King should see that the four castes remain engaged in their respective duties and should punish them duly in case of their default. These works are important as the earliest sources of the State Law; they are also important because of giving us an idea of the relation of Politics to Ethics. From these works we can also gather an idea about the whole administrative machinery, the King's executive, judicial and military functions, and the duties, responsibilities and desirable qualities of the officials like the Mantri, Purohita, Amatya, Prāḍvivāka, etc. 4 The Pali Buddhist Canon The Pali canonical works of the Buddhist Sthavira vādins are divided into three "baskets" (pitakas) or three major collections and they are, viz., the Vinaya ("Conduct"), Sutta "(Sermon)" and Abhidhamma ("Metaphysics") Pitakas. Each of these three Pițakas are again divided into several smaller works, which may be shown in the following tabular order : Digitized by Google Original from UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN Introduction Tripitaka (The three Pitakas) Vinaya Pitaka Suttavi- Khandhaka Parivāra bhanga Mahavagga Cullavagga Mahavibhanga Bhikkhuns vibhanga Sutta Pitaka 5 Digitized by Abhidhamma Pitaka Consists of books viz., 1. Dhamma Samgani 2. Vibhanga 3. Dhätukatha 4. Puggalam Panjati 5. Kathāvatthu 6. Yamaka 7. Pathani Digha Nika ya Majjhima Samyutta Nikaya Nikāya The Khuddaka Nikaya contains fifteen books, seven Google viz. 1. Khuddaka Patha, 2. Dhamma Pada, 3. Udana, 4. Itivuttaka, 5. Suttanipata, 6. Vimānavatthu, 7. Petavatthu, 8. Therāgāthā, 9. Theṛugathā, 10. Jataka, 11. Nidesa, 12. Patisamvidha, 13. Apādani, 14. Buddha-vamsa, 15. Dhamma Pitaka or Cariya Pitaka. Anguttara Khuddaka Nikaya Nikaya This Tripitaka literature has been composed between 400 and 300 B.C. In the context of our present survey, the most important of the three Pitakas is the Sutta Pitaka, which is divided into five Nikayas (Groups) as follows: (1) Dīgha (long) Nikaya, a collection of long sermons ascribed to the Buddha, with accounts of the circumstances in which he preached them. (2) Majjhima (medium) Nikaya, a collection of shorter sermons, Original from UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN MHC-tamİFÒCITY or untilan 6 Political Concepts in Ancient India (3) Samyutta (connected) Nikāya, brief sermons on connected topics. (4) Anguttara (Graduated) Nikaya, a collection of over 2,000 brief statements. (5) Khuddaka (Minor) Nikaya, a collection of miscellaneous works in prose and verse. Of the fifteen books belonging to this collection, the Jataka serves as the most important source for a socio-cultural history. The Jataka is a collection of over 500 poems containing folk-tales and other stories. Now these poems, accompanied by a prose commentary attributed to Buddhaghosa, are together known as the Jataka. A section of the Digha Nikaya, III, called the Aggañña Suttanta, gives us the Buddhist theory of the origin of the King. According to the story given in this work, originally in the human society there was no king and no personal property. Later on, with the growth of personal property there arose four evils of theft, censure, lying and violence. Then the human beings selected the most handsome and capable person to become the King. The epithet Mahasammata, implies that he was the choice of all; he was also called a Khattiya (Skt. Ksatriya) in the sense that he was the lord of the fields. Another epithet Rājā implies that the King used to gratify the people by protecting their interest with righteousness. In the various Jataka stories we get descriptions of good and ideal Kings, the wrong ways of life which they used to avoid, the ten royal duties (Rājadhamma) and the various aspects of good behaviour Digitized by Google Original from UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN 7 (Sila.) The Anguttara Nikāya, II, recounts the evil consequences of a King's being unrighteous. The Samyutta Nikāya, I, instructs as to how the King should be guided by the sole principle of watchfulness (appamādo). In a very important story of the Jataka (i.e., the story No. 521), three wise birds are giving instructions as to how a King should avoid lying, anger and levity; should be energetic, should protect one and all equally. One of the birds tells about the ideal qualities of the ministers and other officials, and a lot of duties and responsibilities of the King, like his own personal attention in respect of the royal income and expenditure. The third bird tells about the powers or Balas of a King and they are the power of arms (bahabala), the power of wealth (bhogabala), the power of officials (amaccabala), the power of high family (abhijaccabala) and the power of wisdom (paññabala), which is the chiefest of all. From the Digha Nikaya and the Anguttara Nikaya we get an idea about the constitution and working of the Samgha-or GanaRepublics, as they tell us about the affairs of the Republic of Vajjis in some detail. From the said two Nikayas we also learn about the Buddhist conception of the Cakkavatti (Skt. Cakravarti) or the universal emperor. Introduction In some later works of Buddhist literature also materials may be found for the study of ancient Indian political ideas and institution. For example, in the Sanskrit Mahāvastu we once again have the theory of the origin of the Kingship and also the concept of the King as the Mahasammata or the choice of all. In the Suvarnaprabhasa-sūtra of the Mahāyāna school, we find in Ch. XII, a Digitized by Google Original from UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN TEXE-HIKIKIPACITY or WAITAKA Political Concepts in Ancient India discourse on the science of Politics (Rājaśāstra) in the form of instructions given to a newly consecrated son by a King. In the Pali Milinda Panha ("The Questions of King Menander") the King puts a question to the monk Nagasena as to how the Buddha could be a Brāhmaṇa and a King at the same time. In course of a reply to this question the monk details the characteristics of a King. We find materials also in the Buddhacarita and the Saundarānanda, the two celebrated Kavyas of Asvaghosa (1st Century B.C.), as in the second canto of both these works there is the description of King Suddhodanas' rule. 8 The Jaina Ācārănga Sutra The most important Jaina work deserving mention in the present context is the Acarangasūtra. (Pkt. Ayaramga-Sutta). It is the first of the 12 Angas (Sections) or canonical texts of the Svetāmbara school, finally settled and reduced to writing at a council at Valabhī in Kathiawar in 454 A.D. In two lengthy sections it treats of the way of life of a monk. The second section contains a passage, which refers to a number of different forms of government, viz., Arajya, Ganarājya, Yuvarajya, Dvairājya, Vairājya and Viruddharājya, the significance of which are discussed below in the body of the glossary. The Earliest Authority on Politics In the source books mentioned above, we find only casual references to political ideas and institutions. But there are reasons to believe that from about the 8th or 7th century B.C. certain technical Digitized by Google Original from UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN Introduction works on the science of politics also began to be written. Unfortunately, however, the the earliest treatises on politics are all lost. Of the technical works which are now available to us is the Arthaśāstra of Kautilya (4th century B.C.). We shall see that the Rajadharma section of the Santi Parva of the Mahabharata also can be said to be as good as a regular treatise on the science of Polity. Both these works refer to certain earlier theorists. The first three verses of Santi Parva, 58, name Brhaspati, Viśālakṣa (Śiva), Kavya (Sukra), Mahendra (Indra), Manu, Bharadvāja and Gauraśiras as writers on the science of Politics (rajaśāstrapranetārah). In the following canto (i.e., canto 59) of the Santi Parva we have the story that the Creator (Svayambhu) with a view to instructing the world in the means of avoiding anarchy and unhappiness composed a colossal treatise in 100,000 chapters in which he dealt with Dharma, Artha and Kāma (v. 29). An idea of the contents of the said work is given in vv. 30-73. Then it is recounted (in vv. 81 to 86) that Śiva first mastered the treatise and then reduced its size to 10,000 chapters, and his abridgement was known as Vaiśālākṣam. Indra reduced its size to 5,000 chapters, and his version came to be known as Bahudantaka. This was reduced to 3,000 chapters by Brhaspati, and Sukra 4. etat te rajadharmāṇāṁ navanītam yudhisthira brhaspatir hi bhagavān nāyyam dharmam prasamsati viśālākṣaśca bhagavān kavyaś caiva mahātapaḥ sahasrākṣo mahendraś ca tathā prācetaso manuḥ bhāradvājaśca bhagavāṁstathā gauraśirā muniḥ rājaśāstra praṇetāro brahmaṇyā brahmavādinaḥ Digitized by 9 Google Original from UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN THE-MIAITANITryr or IAITIARKI Political Concepts in Ancient India condensed it still further to a book of 1,000 chapters only. 10 Kautilya in his Arthaśāstra very often finds an occasion to refer to the views of several earlier authorities on the subject, and they are, namely, Viśālakṣa, Indra (Bāhudanta), Brhaspati, Sukra, Manu, Bharad vāja, Gauraśiras, Parāśara, Pigūna (Narada), Kaunapadanta, Vatavyadhi, Ghotamukha, Katyāyana and Caranya. Kautilya refers about a hundred times to yet another authority with the honorific term Acarya, probably meaning his own teacher," though he often disagrees with this authority also. That these authors really existed may be deduced from the fact that the names of Viśālākṣa (Śiva), Indra (Bahudanta), Brhaspati, Šukra, Manu, Bharadvāja, and Gaurasiras are common to the lists given in both the works, and that even now we have the works of some of these authorities, if not in their original form, at least in modified form, and they are namely, the Manu Smrti. The Pārāśarasmriti, the Sukranīti and the Brhaspatismriti (as reconstructed from the quotations in other smriti works and commentaries). The Mahabharata The Santi Parva of the Mahabharata is subdivided 5. Jolly (in his edition of the Arthaśāstra, 1923, II, p. 4) takes the word to mean "previous teachers", and MM. P. V. Kane interprets it as "the ancient authors of the śāstra collectively". But these meanings are not convincing. See K.V. Rangaswami Aiyangar, Brhaspati-Smrti Introduction, p. 139 ff. Digitized by Google Original from UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN Introduction into three sections, viz., Rajadharma, Apaddharma and Mokṣadharma. Of these, the first and the foremost, i.e., the Rajadharma section itself comprises the first 130 cantos. It is as good as a regular technical treatise on Politics. But it assumes the form of a more practical manual for the administrator from the canto 55 onwards, when Bhīşma begins a discourse on Polity before Yudhisthira. Some of the topics discussed in the Rajadharma section are as follows-Origin of Kingship and the origin of the science of Polity, etc. (Ch. 59), importance of the science of Politics (Ch.s 63-65), duties and responsibilities of the King (Ch.s 55-57, 70, 76, 94, 96, 120, etc.), duties and responsibilities of different ministers (Ch.s 73, 82, 83, 85, 115, 118), the tax-system (Ch.s 71,76, 87, 88, 120, 130), internal administration (Ch. 87), foreign policy, peace and war (Ch.s 80, 87, 99, 100-103, 110, 113) testing of ministers (Ch. 82), importance of secrecy and place of counsel (Ch. 83), etc. There are certain striking similarities of topics treated in the Santi Parva with those treated in the Arthaśāstra and the Manu Samhita. For example, the Ch. 88 reminds us of Aarthaśāstra, V.2, which is styled "Kośabhi samharaṇam". Ch. 83 is very similar to Arthaśāstra. I.15, called Mantradhikara. It is interesting that the following verse of the Santi Parva occurs also in the Arthaśāstra, I.15 (Verse 3) and the Manu Samhita, VII.105 with insignificant differences in reading. Cf. 7 6. tatra tävacchāntau rājadhārmā-paddharma-mokşadharmākhyāḥ kāṇḍāsṭrayah-(Nilakantha's Com. on Santi Parva. I.1). Digitized by 11 7. Cf. Yadā rājā samarthopi kośārthi syān mahā mate Katham pravarteta tada tanme brūhi pitāmaha (śānti Parva, 88.1). Google Original from UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN 12 Political Concepts in Ancient India nāsya cchidraṁ paraḥ paśyecchidreşu param anviyāt guhet kurma ivāngāni rakṣed vivaram ātmanaḥ (Śānti Parva, 83.49). Apart from the Sānti Parva, there are also some other places of the Mahabharata where we find certain very important materials. For example, Sabha Parva, Ch. 5 gives an idea of an ideal administration. In Vana Parva (Ch.s 25, 32, 33 and 150) and also in the Sabha Parva (Ch. 32) we find discussions on the royal policy to be followed in an emergent situation. In a verse of the Mahabhārata itself it is rightly claimed that the great epic may be called a Dharmaśāstra, a Kāmaśāstra and an Arthasāstra (a science of Polity) as well. Compare : Arthaśāstram idam proktam dharmaśāstram idam mahat Kamaśāstram idam proktam vyāsenāmitabuddhinā The Arthasastra of Kautilya The Arthasastra is the greatest name in the history of Indian political literature. It is the most practical and most comprehensive treatise on statecraft. This work is attributed to Kautilya, the famous minister of Candragupta Maurya (4th century B.C.). On the ground that "the text refers to people and places (notably China) which do not seem to have been known to the Indians in the 4th century B.C.", and because of certain other internal evidences it is believed to be a later work of 8. Basham, The Wonder That was India, pp. 50, 79, Digitized by (Mahābhārata, I.2.384). Google Original from UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN Introduction c 4th century A.D. But we shall be more justified to take the questionable passages to be interpolations and to conclude that the book is substantially a composition of Kautilya, the Mauryan minister himself. While the Mahabharata teaches Politics as a part of moral training, the Arthasāstra serves as a practical guide to statecraft. Its main concern is the well-being of the state and the material prosperity of the King. Though the King is expected to master the Vedas and philosophy by the Arthaśāstra also, it does not bother about ethical rigidities so far as political and administrative policies are concerned. It comprises 15 Books (Adhikaraṇas), each containing some smaller chapters (Adhyāyas). In another manner the Adhikaranas are divided into smaller sections or Prakaranas. Thus in the whole work we have some 150 Adhyayas or some 180 Prakaranas.¹0⁰ The contents of the Arthaśāstra may be briefly indicated as follows: Book I Book III Book IV 13 Book II Settlement of the countryside and fortification; duties and responsibilities of various officers connected with civil administration. -Training of the King, testing of officials, personal security of the King, secrecy of counsels, etc. Digitized by } Civil, criminal and personal law. 9. Basham, Ibid., p. 79. Altekar, SGAI. p., 15. 10. In the Glossary, the Roman numbers indicate the Book no.s and ordinary Arabic numerals indicate the Chap no.s. Google Original from UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN THE TRAINIEDOITY- AC SUMBAINI 14 Book V Political Concepts in Ancient India -Secret assassinations, means of increasing the royal coffer, payment of officials, etc. Book VI -Nature and function of the seven elements of the state; the circle of allied and enemy Kings. Book VII -The six modes of foreign policy. Book VIII-The probable calamities of the State. Book IX-Problems connected with aggression. Book X-The art and organisation of war. Book XI -Policy towards the Samgha-republics. Book XII-Policy towards the weaker foreign Kings. Book XIII-Means of occupying the enemy fort. Book XIV-Application of poison and other secret elements to harm the enemy, wonderful and delusive contrivances, application of medicine and charms, remedies against the injuries of the own army. Book XV-Paragraphical divisions of the treatise and explanation of the methodology of the treatment of the subject. The style of the composition of this most comprehensive technical work on politics is somewhat similar to the works of Apastamba, Baudhayana and other Sutra writers. In the concluding verse of the Arthasastra, the author says that he has composed his own Sutras and commentary. The Sutras, meant by him are probably the enigmatical titles or the initial lines of each chapter, the text of the chapters being the commentary on the respective titles, or the initial lines." There are cer11. Shamasastry, Arthasastra, Translation, Introduction, p. xx. Digitized by Google Original from UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN Introduction tain summary verses in the body of the chapters. Most of them seem to be his own, while some might have been taken from some earlier source. "Many of the words used in the Arthasāstra are now obsolete, and a few violate the canons of Panini".12 The Works of Manu and Yājňavalk ya The Smrti works of Manu and Yajñavalkya are another two very important works as original sources. The Manu Smrti (also called Manu Samhita) was written between 200 B.C. and 200 A.C. while the Yajnavalkya Smrti was composed between 100 and 300 A.C. In chapters VII, VIII and IX of the Manu Smrti we have discussions on duties and responsibilities of the King, functions of the different officers, the theories and principles concerning foreign policy, and civil and criminal law. At times these discussions seem to be a summarisation of what is given in the Mahābhārata and the Arthaśāstra. Yajnavalkya discusses rājadharma (i.e., the total duty of the King) in section 13 of Ch. I. Whole of the Ch. II, comprising 25 sections, in the Yājñavalkya Smṛiti is a treatise on civil and criminal law. 15 It is to be noted here that according to the doctrine of these Smṛtis, duties for each and every one of the four Varnas remain well defined. Any breach in the limits of duties constitutes an offence. "For every offence there is both a civil penalty and a purification, and without both, one is not absolved from the effects of the offence". That is why, in 18 12. Shamasastry, loc cit. 13. K.V. Rangaswami Aiyangar, Brhaspati Smrti, Preface, p. 11. Digitized by Google Original from UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN these Smṛiti works, we have chapters on both Prāyścitta (expiatory rituals) and Vyavahāra (legal procedure). The treatment of civil and criminal laws and also an outline of the social order should invariably find a place in an ancient treatise on politics because, "the Indian King was the custodian of social order, and he was expected to see that everyone in the Kingdom kept to the track laid down for him by the śāstras. He had therefore to be well posted in the knowledge of everyone's duty, besides knowing his own, both as a Kṣatriya and a King".[^14] In the present survey mention should be made also of Medhātithi (825 to 900 A.C.) and Kulluka (12th C.A.C.) for their very informative and intelligent commentaries on the Manu Smṛti. Likewise, the Bālakrīḍā of Viṣvarūpa (9th C.A.C.) and the Mitākṣarā of Vijñāneśvara (12th C.A.C.) are very useful for understanding the work of Yājñavalkya. Kāmandakīya Nītisāra The Kāmandakīya Nītisāra is another technical work on the science of Politics. This work was most probably composed in the Gupta age around 500 A.C. The title implies that the work contains the principles of politics propounded by Kamanda, an ancient master. But in fact, it is a compilation of the theories laid down in the Mahābhārata and the Arthaśāstra by some unknown scholar who was posterior to Kauṭilya. This author has great [^14] K. V. Rangaswami Aiyangar, Bṛhaspati Smṛti, Preface, p. 11. admiration for Kauṭilya. He pays homage to the illustrious Viṣṇugupta (Kauṭilya) who churned up the nectar in the form of the science of politics (Nītiśāstra) from the ocean of Arthaśāstra (i.e., the vast lore of Politics).[^15] This is in reality a summary of the work of Kautilya in verse form. Except Kauṭilya's treatment of the republican form of government and civil, criminal and personal law, almost everything that we have in the Arthaśāstra is reproduced here in a summarised verse form convenient for memorisation. Other Technical Works on Politics The Śukranīti, stuffed with varied and sometimes new informations on duties of the King, functions of officials, foreign policy and art of war, civil and judicial administration, etc., is most probably a work of the 11th or the 12th century A.D. The Nītivākyāmṛta of Somadeva (10th C.A.D.) is an electic work based generally on old authorities. Politics is elaborately discussed along with other aspects of Dharma in several works like the Abhilaṣitārthacintāmaṇi of Someśvara (1331 A.D.), Yuktikalpataru of Bhoja (1025 A.D., Rājanītikalpataru of Lakṣmīdhara (1125 A.D.), Rājanīitītikāṇḍa of Devanabhaṭṭa (c. 1300 A.D.), Rājanītiratnākara of Caṇdeśvara (c. 1325 A.D.), Nītimayūkha of Nīlakaṇṭha (c. 1625 A.D.), Rājanītiprakāsa of Mitramiśra (c. 1650 A.D.) and the Manasollāsa of the Cālukyan King Someśvara (1125-1138 A.D.), which is more [^15] nītiśāstrāmṛtaṁ śrīmān arthaśāstra mahodadheḥ ya uddadhre namastasmai viṣnuguptāya vedhase (Kāmandakīya Nītisāra. I.6). 18 Political Concepts in Ancient India of the nature of an extensive guide book for the rulers. Other Original Sources The Purāṇas are usually encyclopaedic in their contents. Hence, it is no wonder that just as some Purāṇas deal with Poetics (Alaṁkāra), some also deal with the theories of state and government. For example we have discussion on Politics in Agnipurana (Ch.s 218-42), Matsyapurana (Ch.s 215-43), Garuḍapurāṇa (Ch.s 108-115), Mārkaṇḍeyapurāṇa (Ch. 24), and Kālikāpurāṇa (Ch.s 87, 88). But whatever we have in these Puranas is only a repetition of the contents of the Santi Parva or the Arthaśāstra or the Manu Samhita and the Kamandakiya Nītisāra. In the Rāmāyaṇa also we have a lot of materials relating to ancient Indian political ideas and institutions. Though the principal sentiment of the Rāmāyaṇa is Karuṇa (Pathos), yet it has Kings and Princes as heroes and describes a great deal of diplomacy and political organisation. Hence, the Rāmāyaṇa also serves as an important source. The Sanskrit court epics are expected to have either the Erotic (Śrngāra) or the Heroic (Vira) as the principal sentiment. The basic stories are also often taken from Itihāsas or the two great epics. Thus, in the Kavyas having Vīra as the principal sentiment we invariably have a canto or two devoted to discussion on politics. The first two cantos of the Kirātārjunīya and the second canto of the Sisupalavadha are the most handy examples. Similar is the case with the Mudrārākşasa of Visakhadatta, dramas like the Digitized by Google Original from UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN Introduction which is the most political of the dramas, and the Venisamhāra of Bhaṭṭanārāyaṇa. Apart from these, mention may be made of the Raghuvamsa and the Malavikāgnimitra of Kalidasa, Kadambari and the Harşacarita of Bāṇabhaṭṭa, Daśakumāracarita of Dandin, Rajatarangini of Kalhana and the Pancatantra and the Hitopadeśa, which contain a profuse quantity of socio-cultural data including those on politics. About the South Indian forms of government and political ideas we get occasional references in the literary works like the Tirukkural and the Silappadikaram. 19 Apart from books, the rock and copper plate inscriptions also contain a lot of material. These inscriptions often 'represent the actual state of affairs in the government machinery of the different administrations'.16 From these inscriptions we may learn about the designations and the duties and responsibilities of the various government officials, relation between the King and his cabinet or the popular assembly, territorial divisions, different kinds of tax and levies, etc., etc. Aspects of Ancient Indian Political Life and Thought The survey of the original sources made above should suffice to indicate that the ancient works concerning politics cover a vast field and varied aspects of political life and thought. Technical works like the Arthaśāstra or the Kamandakıya Nitisāra were composed as text books for the training and guidance of the Kings. Hence the technical 16. Altekar, SGAI, p. 24. Digitized by Google Original from UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN works deal with all the aspects of a King's administration and diplomatic policy. The Arthaśāstra of Kauṭilya presents us the most comprehensive list of items that should generally find place in a treatise on politics. Apart from the topics dealt with in the Arthaśāstra, a work like the Śānti Parva also raises a question as to how the institution of Kingship originated. Thus, for the purpose of compiling and studying the ancient Indian political terms we have to examine and explore the various aspects of ancient Indian political life and thought as depicted in the corpus of literature surveyed above, and those various aspects may be indicated in broad outlines as follows: The original state of anarchy and the origin of the King and government. The concept of the State--the various constituent elements of the State (traditionally called Aṅgas or Prakṛtis)-the territory and its division into the town and the countryside. The various forms of government-republican and monarchical forms--the Saṁgha or Gana republics. The popular assemblies in a monarchical form of government--limits of the authority of the King. The different degrees of the supremacy of the King--the Emperor--the ordinary independent ruler--the feudatories, etc. The royal consecration and other royal festivals and rituals. Introduction Public administration and the designation and functions of administrative officers in an average monarchical form of government. 21 Public finance-various sources of revenueprinciples of taxation and various forms of tolls and levies-the schedule of pay and emoluments to be paid to dignitaries and officials. Judicial administration-civil, criminal and personal laws-various offences and their punishments. Foriegn policy-the theory of the circles of allied and enemy Kings. Espionage and the functions of the emissaries. The principles of aggression, treaty and neutrality. Military organisation-varieties of the armybranches of the army-training of the men and animals and the art of war-various weapons and accessories fortification and details of action. The Scope of the Present Glossary L.M. Harrod in the Introduction of his work, The Librarians' Glossary, defines Glossary as "an alphabetical list of abstruse, obsolete, unusual, technical, dialectical or other terms concerned with a subject field, together with definitions". In the light of the subject field relating to ancient Indian Politics, indicated above, the present Glossary also is expected to contain the technical terms pertaining to all the above aspects and as found in the whole literature surveyed earlier. But the present work is Digitized by Google Original from UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN prepared as a Ph.D. dissertation, and hence, the technical terms had to be culled from a literature extending only up to the 7th century A.D., at the instance of the Ph.D. Committee. Hence, a technical term, when it occurs only in a late work like the Śukranīti, is usually not included in the present Glossary, unless it is anticipated by a term found in a work that falls within our time-limit. Sometimes, however, even a later work or later epigraphical record is cited only to show the continuation of the use of the term from earlier times. It should be candidly expressed here that it is difficult to draw a clear line of demarcation between the ordinary dictionary words and the technical terms. Yet we have taken as much care as possible to sort out only such terms which are "abstruse, obsolete, unusual, technical and dialectical." Though judicial administration forms a part of the King's duty, yet we feel that the legal terms have an identity of their own. Hence, we have included only a limited number of terms pertaining to the judicial aspect of ancient Indian politics. The ancient Indian legal terms, themselves may form an independent Glossary. The treatment of military organisation and the art of war is so elaborate that we can afford to include the terms relating only to the major categories without going into the hair-splitting details. We feel that there may be an independent full length Glossary also of the ancient Indian military terms. It is, however, regretted that in the present work, it could not be found convenient to include the terms found in the south Indian literature. Introduction The Utility of the Present Glossary A study of the ancient Indian political ideas and institutions forms an indispensable part of the cultural history of India. Hence, for the whole community of the students of Indology, ancient Indian polity has a sustained interest. The Indians, particularly, may highly be benefited by a familiarity with the ancient political wisdom. That Dr. K. P. Jayaswal's writings overstressing the democratic element in the ancient Indian way of life, in the pre-independence days worked as a source of inspiration to the Indians in their struggle for freedom is rightly observed by as great a savant as Prof. A. L. Basham." Prof. Basham, however, observes also that there was a great disadvantage of undue reliance on the pedantic theory or ancient tradition.¹8 But even for a rejection of the traditional theory, we must first examine it with the same amount of meticulous care as is obtained in case of the pedantic theory itself. "Professor F. W. Thomas in 1937 in reply to an address of welcome given by professors of Sanskrit College, Calcutta, predicted that India would achieve her political freedom in no time and the future rulers of India would be able to conduct the Indian 23 17. Cf. "Such patriotic scholars as Dr. K.P. Jayaswal, writing when India's independence had not been achieved, did much to give her people faith in themselves, and therefore may have served a practical purpose". (The Wonder that was India, p. 110.) 18. Cf. "The kingdoms of medieval Hindu-India...were quite incapable of withstanding the Turks, whose military science was not overburdened by pedantic theory or ancient tradition". (Ibid., p. 136.) Digitized by Google Original from UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN nation along the safe course of activities if they guided themselves by the light of the political wisdom enshrined in the Mahābhārata", observed Professor Satkari Mookerjee in a paper published in 1959. Satkari Mookerjee, "Political Wisdom of Ancient India", Journal of the Bihar Research Society, Vol. XXXXV, parts I-IV, December, 1959. That was at a time when India had friendly relations with China. But by applying the ancient Indian political theory, it appears that, Professor Mookerjee could make a prediction about the Indo-China conflict that took place some three years later in 1962, as he observed, "To add further fuel to the fire, China has become our immediate neighbour (bhūmyanantara) by overrunning Tibet. She seems inebriated with power.... India has to become militarily powerful enough in order to inspire a feeling of healthy regard for her territory". Ibid, Thus the study of the ancient Indian political wisdom has great significance, even in the present age. The utility of the study of ancient Indian political literature itself suffices to establish the utility of the present Glossary. In this Glossary an attempt is made to present an authentic and scientifically prepared index to the technical terms of the vast and extensive original literature on ancient Indian political life and thought. Such a systematic index is expected to be useful in view of the following factors. (a) There are certain such ideas for each of which we have more than one technical Introduction 25 term. For example, the 'Science of politics' itself is called by different names. Kautilya in Arthaśāstra, XV calls it arthaśāstra. (cf. Dharmam artham ca kamaṁ ca pravartyati pāti ca adharman arthavidveṣān 'idam sastram' nihanti ca). In Mahābhārata, xii. 56, 3-4, etc. it is called rājadharma. (cf. sarvasya jivalokasya 'rājadharmaḥ' parāyaṇam) In Sukranītisāra, 1.4 it is called nītiśāstra. (cf. Krivaikadeśabodhini śāstranyanyāni santi hi sarvopajivakaṁ lokasthitikṛīnnītisāstrakam'...) (b) There are certain terms which have more than one implication. For example the term rājadharma has the following implications : (i) rajadharma-The whole duty of the King' according to the old Smriti concept and the Mahabharata. (ii) rājadharma=The ten royal duties of an ideal king according to the Buddhist tradition as we have it in the Jataka stories. (c) The implication of a term like rājan (=rājā) varied from time to time and from place to place. (i) raja-The chosen leader of the people (Mahasammata) "who gratifies (ranjaDigitized by Google Original from UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN yati) the others according to dhamma" (vide Dīgha Nikāya, Vol. III, pp. 92-93). (ii) rājā=The leader of the battle (vide Aitareya Brāhmaṇa. I.14). (iii) rājā=A vassal king or even a smaller vassal king in relation to the paramount rulers assuming the titles like mahārājā, rājātirāja and mahārājādhirāja as was the vogue by the Gupta age. (iv) rājā=A term applied to the Heads of the families capable of taking part in the tribal assemblies constituting the nonmonarchical republics of the Buddhist tradition. (v) rājan=The term has been used in Northern India (Āryāvārtta) to mean any one engaged in the ruling function (vide Kumārīla on Mīmāṁsāsūtra, II. 3.2). (vi) rājan=The term used to be applied even to governors of districts (māṇḍalikas), appointed to their posts by some paramount ruler. (Kumārila in the same context of the Mīmāṁsāsūtra). (vii) rājan=The people of Andhra, as recorded by Śabara, and the people of Dravida, as recorded by Kumārila 'applied the title to all Kshatriyas irrespective of their exercise of the ruling function or not'. (d) In view of the divergent implications, an attempt is made in the Glossary to point Introduction out precisely the respective contexts for the various implications of each term and care is taken to correlate the various terms having a common implication. (e) The Glossary is expected to make the reading of the original texts more convenient in several ways. One interesting example as to how a Glossary may help is that the term Pūrvasāhasadanda is used in the Arthasastra as early as in the first chapter of Book III, and severally in the subsequent chapters; whereas, it is defined for the first time only as late as in the 17th chapter of Book III. Similar is the case with the terms like Madhyamsāhasadaṇḍa and Uttamasāhasadaṇḍa. 27 The Technical Form of the Glossary The academic interest involved in this investigation is the same as what is obtained in case of following similar works, viz. (1) D. C. Sircar, Indian Epigraphical Glossary, 1966. (2) L. M. Harrod, The Librarians' Glossary, 1971. (3) J. E. Cirlot, A Dictionary of Symbols, (English translation from the Spanish original), 1962. (5) (4) S. C. Banerji, A Glossary of Smrti Literature, 1963. E. Gerow, A Glossary of Indian Figures of Speech, Mouton Publishers, 1971. (6) Macdonell and Keith, Vedic Index of Names and Subjects, Varanasi, 1958. Digitized by Google Original from UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN These works with their respective distinctive features have served as very good models for the present Glossary. But finally the treatment of the terms has taken a shape more akin to that of the Vedic Index. For arranging the terms alphabetically, they are first transliterated and then arranged in the order of an usual Sanskrit Dictionary. For the alphabetical arrangement, the compound words are also treated as single words, and the derivatives are treated as independent words. Barring a few exceptions like ratnin, the words ending in -an and -in are given in nom. singular form. Thus instead of mantrin we have mantrī. The term Mantri-Pariṣad occurs earlier than Mantrī because of the i being short due to the compound. Whenever there is an anusvāra, it is treated as a conjunction of m with the following consonant. GLOSSARY Digitized by Google Original from UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN Digitized by Google Original from UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN AKṚTA--(KṢETRA) A piece of waste or uncultivated land (AŚ. II.1). Kautilya suggests that anybody who would bring such a land under cultivation would not have to lose its ownership. cf; akṛtāni kartṛbhyo nādeyāt (AŚ. II.1). AKṚTYA--Contented subjects who are not liable to be won over by the enemy with any propaganda (AŚ. I.13, I.14). AKṢAPAṬALA--A depository of royal documents and account books. (vide AŚ. II.7). AKṢAPATALĀDHYAKṢA—(1) The officer in charge of the depository of the royal documents and the account books. The duties and responsibilities of this executive officer are described by Kauṭilya in AŚ. II.7. The officer is, however, referred to as Adhyakṣa, but the references being in the context of the Akṣapaṭala (q.v.), we take the term Adhyakṣa to be an abbreviation of the more relevant term Akṣapaṭalādhyakṣa. See, Sircar, Glossary, p. 14 and Kane, HD. III. p. 143. (2) Same as Mahākṣapaṭalika (Superintendent of records and accounts), often given in the inscriptional records. See, Altekar, SGAI, p. 199, Sircar, Ibid., p. 178. AKṢAVĀPA--(1) One of the eleven Ratnins (q.v.). (2) From akṣa (meaning dice) the present term is presumed to mean the King's companion at the game table. (3) But it seems to be more reasonable to take this term to be analogous to Akṣapatalādhyakṣa of AŚ II.7. While, Saṁgrahitā, the seventh of the Ratnins,cor responds to Sannidhātā of the fifth ch. of AŚ bk. II, and Bhāgadhuk, the eighth of the Ratnins corresponds to Samāhartā of the sixth ch. of AŚ bk. II, it is quite likely that Akṣavāpa the ninth of the Ratnins corresponds to the Akṣapaṭalādhyakṣa, given in the very next ch., i.e., ch. 7 of AŚ bk. II. (4) As equivalent to Akṣapaṭalādhyakṣa, the present term means the Superintendent of the depository of the royal records and accounts. AGRAHĀRA--Rent free land donated to brāhmaṇas. Vide Bobbili C.P. Inscription of Achaṇḍavarman, lines 6, 7.13. This term is often suffixed to the names of the villages or localities donated by the Kings as in the name Mayurasalmala-Agrahara in the Nidhanpur C.P. Grant of Bhaskaravarman. (lines 50f). P. N. Bhattacharyya, Kamarupaśasanavali, pp. 16 f. ATAVIRAJYA-Kingdoms of the forest region. From inscriptional evidences these Forest Kingdoms seem to have been small but sovereign states mainly belonging to central India. The powerful Kings often took pride in subduing the forest Kingdoms. (See Atavikarāja). In the Khoh C.P. Inscription of Saṁkṣobha (529 A.D.) and the Kanas Plate of Loka vigraha (Ep. Ind. XXXVIII, p. 331) we find references to 18 Aṭavīrājyas. sāṣṭadaśāṭavīrājyabhyantaraṁ ḍadbhālā rājyaṁ...(line 8). tosalyāṁ sāṣṭādaśāṭavīrājyāyāṁ (vide D.C. Sircar, Select Inscriptions, p. 395). ATI-SANDHI--If a certain treaty (Sandhi) results in a greater gain of wealth (Hiraṇya) land (Bhūmi), etc. than anticipated in time of the mutual agreement, the treaty is called an Atisandhi. (AŚ VII.9). ATYAYA--A fine or penalty. It is one of the seven Āyamukhas or sources of royal income (AŚ II. 6). Such a fine is often realised in the form of a deduction of pay and other emoluments of state employees. (See the expression Atyayasthāna in AŚ II.32) ADHIKĀRI MAHATTARA(S)--see Mahattarādhikārins. ADHIPĀLA--A registrar of pledges or mortgages (AŚ III.12). ADHIRĀJA--A King with supremacy over a number of feudatories. (cf. Basham, The Wonder that was India, p. 94). ADHIVINNĀ--A woman whose husband marries a second wife. (Yājñavalkya, I. 73, 74; Manu Saṁ IX. 83; AŚ III.2). ADHIVEDANAM--Marrying of a second wife in presence of the earlier wife. cf. adhivedanaṁ bhāryāntaraparigrahaḥ (Mitakṣarā on Yājñavalkyasmṛti I.73). ADHIVEDANIKA--A compensation given to the first wife by her husband on his marrying another woman. (AŚ III. 2, Yājñavalkya II.143, 148). ĀJĪVA--A profession or source of income. (AŚ III. 12). ĀBHIGĀMIKA--(GUṆAS)—(1) Certain attractive qualities which make the King dear to his subjects. These qualities are enumerated by Kauṭilya in AŚ VI.1, and they are as follows: The King should be Mahākulīna (of high birth), Daivasampanna (endowed with the merits of the previous birth), Buddhisampanna (endowed with intelligence), Sattvasampanna (endowed with steadiness), Bṛddhadarśī, (prepared to listen to the old men), Dhārmika (pious), Satyavāk (truthful), Avisaṁyādaka (keeping conformity of deeds with words), Kṛtajña (grateful for good done by others), Sthūlalakṣā (highly generous), Mahotsāha (highly enthusiastic), Adīrghasūtra (prompt in action), Śakyasāmanta (capable of keeping vessels in control), Dṛḍhabuddhi (firm in determination), Akṣudrapariṣatka (having a sufficiently large council of ministers) and Vinayakāma (a lover of politeness). There is an alternative reading Dṛḍhabhakti (firmly devoted) supported also by the list given by Kāmandaka. (2) Kāmandaka gives these qualities in verse form as follows:kulaṁ sattvaṁ vayaḥ śīlaṁ dākṣiṇyaṁ kṣiprakāritā avisaṁvāditā satyaṁ vṛddhasevā kṛtajñatā daivasampannatā buddhirakṣudraparivāratā śakyasāmantatā caiva tathā ca dṛḍhabhaktitā dīrghadarśitvam utsāhaḥ śucitā sthūlalakṣatā vinītatā dhārmikatā guṇāḥ sādhvabhigāmikāḥ guṇairetair upetaḥ san suvyaktam abhigamyate tathā tu kurvīta yathā gacchellokābhigamyatām (Kāṁandakīyaṅītisāra, IV. 6-9). (3) Bhāskara varman, the Kāmarūpa King of 7th Century A.D., is said to have been duly endowed with the Ābhigāmika qualities with which he proved his love for the subjects and could fully possess the royal fortune of Kāmarūpa. Cf. nirantarapraṇayarasabharākṛṣṭa-Kāmarūpalakṣmīsamāliṁganaprakațitābhigāmika guṇānurāgavṛtti (Nidhanpur C.P. Grant of Bhaskaravarman, lines 44). Vide, Kāmarūpaśāsanāvalī, p. 16. ABHITYAKTA--The awardee of a death sentence. (AŚ V.2). ABHIŚAPTA--An accused person (AŚ IV. 8). ABHIŚĀPA--A serious charge or accusation as in Yājñavalkyasmṛti 2. 99 (nṛpārtheṣvabhiśāpe ca vaheyuḥ śucayaḥ sadā). Cf. Mitäkṣarā Com. thereon, where abhiśāpe=mahāpātakābhiyoge. ABHIṢEKA--Royal consecration ceremony. The procedure of the performance of this ceremony is given in detail in Śatapatha-Brāhmaṇa, V, Taittirīya Brāhmaṇa, I. 7. 5, ff. and Aitareya Brāhmaṇa, VIII. 5 ff. Abhiṣeka is an essential part of the Rājasūya or sacrifice of royal inauguration, being the second of its component members. (see Vedic Index, Vol. I, p. 28). ANARTHA-TRIVARGA--Anartha (loss of wealth or misfortune), Adharma (lack of piety) and Śoka (sorrow) taken together are called Anarthatrivarga, (AŚ IX. 7). anartho'dharmaśśoka ityanartha-trivargah. ANAVASITA-SANDHI--Literally 'an indeterminate treaty'. A Sandhi involving an agreement of both the parties for colonisation of waste lands. This Sandhi is called so because there are innumerable ways of colonisation as detailed in AŚ VII. 11. ANĪKASTHA--(1) An elephant trainer (AŚ II. 2, II.31 etc.). (2) An armed bodyguard or the host of bodyguards of the King. (rakṣivargastvanīkasthaḥ, Amarakośa, Kṣatriya varga). ANUTTHĀNA--The opposite of Utthāna (q.v.) ANUŚAYA--A dispute in respect of a sold or purchased article. (AŚ III. 15). ANTAPĀLA--One of the 18 Mahāmātras or Tīrthas. He used to be in charge of a border fort called Antapāladurga. His pay is said to have been 12000 Paṇas per annum (AŚ V. 3). His duty was to collect road tolls and to look after the upkeep of the road and its safety. Vide, Basham, The Wonder that was India, p. 108. (AŚ VIII. 4). ANTAPĀLADURGA--A border fort situated on the common margin of two adjacent Janapadas (AŚ II. 1). It remains under the charge of a Mahāmātra or Tīrtha called Antapāla. A court of justice under a Dharmastha is also stationed in this Antapāladurga as indicated by the expression Janapadasandhi in AŚ III. 1. ANTARAMĀTYAKOPA--Antagonism towards the King on the part of any one of the closely associated Amātyas other than the Mantrī, the Purohita, the Yuvarāja and the Senāpati. (AŚ IX. 3). mantryādi-varjanamantaramātyānām anyatamakopo'ntaramātya-kopah. ANTARDHI--A weak king who stands (geographically) in between the Vijigīṣu (aggressor) and his Ari (enemy). He is called so, because whenever there is any offence from any strong power, he conceals himself in either a fort or a forest. Vide, AŚ VII. 13. antarnetuśca madhyastho durbalontardhirucyate pratighāte balavato durgāṭavyapasāravān. ANTARVAMŚIKA--(1) Chief of the guards of the harem. (2) One of the 18 Mahāmātras or Tīrthas. (AŚ I. 12). (3) His yearly pay is fixed by Kauṭilya at 24000 panas. (AŚ V. 3.) ANTAḤPURA--Royal female apartments. ĀNVĪKṢIKĪ-- (1) Medhātithi on Manusaṁ. VII. 43 says that the term may mean either Tarkavidyā (i.e., logic or the science of reasoning) or Ātmavidyā (i.e., metaphysics). Offering a third alternative he says that Ānvīksikī may be another name for Ātmavidyā (metaphysics) and Manu mentions the latter only by way of qualifying the former. traividyebhyastrayīm vidyāt daṇḍanītiṁ ca śāvatīm ānvīkṣikīṁ cātmavidyāṁ vārtārambhaṁs'ca lokatha (Manu Saṁ VII.43). evam ānvīkṣikyapi tarkavidyā arthas' āstrādikā, ātmavidyā 'dhyātmavidyā vis'eṣaṇa viseṣye vā pade (Medhatithi on above). (2) In Gautama Dharma Sūtra, XI. 2 it is said to form the curriculum of studies for the King along with Trayī (i.e., the three Vedas). (3) In AS' I. 1 it is one of the four main sciences (vidyās), while the other three are Trayi, Vārtā (Economics and Commerce) and Daṇḍanīti. (4) Kauṭilya observes that Saṁkhya, Yoga and Lokāyata philosophies come under the purview of Ānvīkṣikī. sāṁkhyaṁ yogo lokāyataṁ cetyānvīkṣikī. According to Kauṭilya, Ānvīkṣikī is a lamp to illumine all other sciences. This analogy and other observations tend to imply that Kauṭilya understands the meaning of the terms as 'logical reasonings' or as 'philosophy comprising of logic and metaphysics'. (5) Kauṭilya also refers to a view of the school of Manu according to which Trayī, Vārtā and Daṇḍanīti are the only three sciences (Vidyās) and Ānvīkṣikī forms an aspect of Trayī itself. trayīvis'eṣo hyānvīkṣikīti, (6) In the context of ancient Indian politics what is most important is that Ānvīkṣikī formed a part of the training of princes and Kings. (7) In AŚ I. 1. Kauṭilya gives a beautiful verse in praise of Ānvīkṣikī as follows: pradīpassarvavidyānām upāyassarva karmaņām āśrayas sarvadharmāṇāṁ śaśvadānvīkṣikī matā (Ānvīkṣikī is a lamp for all other vidyās, a means for doing all other deeds, and it is always recognised as the protector of all the Dharmas). It is very interesting that this verse occurs also in the Vatsāyana Bhāṣya on Nyāyasūtra I.1. (with a slight variation that the last foot is read as vidyoddeśe prakīrtitā) in praise of Ānvīkṣikī itself. APANAYA--(1) A state of failure to achieve Yogakṣema despite human efforts. It is the opposite of Naya, which implies achievement of Yoga-kṣema. (AŚ VI. 2). Cf. dṛṣṭakāritaṁ mānuṣaṁ, tasmin yoga-kṣemaniṣpattirnayah, vipattirapanayah (AŚ VI. 2). (2) Improper use of the six Guṇas (Ṣadguṇa) viz. Sandhi, etc. (AŚ VIII. 1 and IX.5). Cf. sandhyādīnāmayathoddeśāvasthāpanam apanayah (AŚ IX. 5). (3) Injury or offence (as in Śiśupālavadha, 2. 14). Vide Apte, p. 31. APASARPA--A secret agent or spy (AŚ XIII. 3) cf. (Raghuvaṁśa, 17. 15), etc. APASĀRA--(1) A (secret) outlet from forts. (AŚ VII. 15). Cf. nicayāpasārasampannaṁ hi ṁaṇusyadurgamicchediti kauṭilyah, (2) Retreating (AŚ, VII. 15). Cf. sandheyatāmātmanah parasya copalabhya sandadhīta, viparyaye vikrameṇa siddhimapasāraṁ vā lipseta. (3) The harem that proceeds with the King in time of an expedition. (AŚ X. 2). kalatrasthānam apasārah. (4) A balcony or verandah (AS' II. 5.) A warehouse should have verandas on both sides. vivṛtastambhāpasāramubhayatah paṇyagrham. (5) (In the matter of an investigation regarding a stolen article) a comparatively earlier seller (who is cited by the accused seller). Cf. sa cedapasāramadhigacche dapasaredapasāra kṣayāditi kṣaye (AŚ III. 16). APAVIDDHA--One abandoned by his own parents (or by either of them) and then accepted and brought up by another as his own son. (ManuSaṁ. IX. 171) cf. AŚ III. 7. APAHĀRA--One of the eight avenues of the loss of the exchequer. (Kośakṣaya). It is the common name for three types of defalcation or misappropriation by officials engaged in the finance department. The three varieties of Apahāra are as follows(i) non-entry of an income in the official ledger, (ii) non-payment of the sanctioned amount to the actual payee, and (iii) denial of the receipt of an income for the royal exchequer. (AŚ II. 8). Cf. siddhamāyaṁ na praveśayati, nibaddhaṁ vyayaṁ na prayaccati, prāptāṁ nīvīṁ vīpratijānīta ityapahārah (AŚ II. 8). AP-DURGA --(1) Abdurga-water fort. (vide Manu-Saṁ. VII. 7). (2) =Audaka-Durga of AŚ II. 3. APRĀPTAVYAVAHĀRA--A minor, who has not attained majority of age enough for taking part in a legal suit. (AŚ III. 1). AMĀTYA-- (1) Administrative Officers, engaged in various departments of the royal administration. (2) Only such persons who had been purified by the four tests (Upaḍhās) were to be appointed in the different departments according to the various tests passed by them. Those who had passed the Virtue test (Dharmopadhā) were to be appointed in the departments of judicial administration (i.e., Dharmasthīya and Kaṇṭakaśodhana); those who had passed the wealth test (Arthopadhā) were to be appointed in the King's revenue departments; and those who had passed the Pleasure test (Kāmopadhā) were to be appointed for guarding the. royal ladies; those who passed the fear test (Bhayopadhā) were to be appointed for such official duties which could be performed remaining physically nearer to the King's person; and those who passed in all the four tests could be appointed ministers (Mantrīs). tatra dharmopadhā s'uddhān dharmasthīya kaṇṭakaśodhaneṣu sthāpayet. arthopadhā s'uddhān samāhartṛsannidhātṛnicayakarmaṣu. kāmpopadhāśuddhān Vāhyābhyantaravihārarakṣāsu. bhyayopadhāśuddhān āsannakāryeṣu rajṇah. sarvopadhā śuddhān mantriṇah kuryuh. (AŚ I. 10). (3) The Amātyas as well as the Mantrīs, and Sacivas of later times, were anticipated by the Ratnins of the Vedic period. A. S. Altekar, SGAI, p. 163. (4) Mahābhārata (XII. 85. 7-8) refers to a council of 36 Amātyas. This council of Amātya may be conjectured to have been a body of advisers, larger than the council of ministers (Mantripariṣad). (5) According to Amarakosa, an Amātya, when he is a Dhīsaciva, is called a Mantrī; others are mere Karmasacivas. mantrī dhīsacivo'mātyo'nye karmasacivā statah. (Amarakosa, Ksatriyavarga). (6) Kauṭilya distinguished between a Mantrī and an Amātya by pointing out that the salary of the former was 48000 while that of the latter was 12000. A person who was otherwise qualified to be an Amātya was not regarded as necessarily fit to become a Mantrī. The Mantrī must have been an Amātya, tested by all the 4 upadhās. (7) Kauṭilya in AŚ, I. 9 enumerates a number of qualities of an Amātya called Amātyasampat. Many other types of officials were required to share these qualities in common with the Amātyas. Hence, the higher officials like the Lekhaka, Vyavahārika, etc., are taken to have been recruited from the Amātya class. (8) Junagarh Rock Inscription of Rudradāman I (C. 150 A.D.) mentions one Suviśākha as an Amātya and enumerates a number of qualities of Amātya (Amātya guṇas) in the same line (i.e., line 19). pahalavena Kulaipaputreṇāmātyena suvisākhena yathāvadartha-dharma-Vyavahāra-darsanairānuragam abhivardhayatā śaktena dāntenācapalena-vismitenā-ryeṇahāryeṇa. (D.C. Sircar, Select Inscriptions, Vol. I, p. 180). In the portion yathāvadartha-dharma, there may be a disguised suggestion regarding the Arthopadhā and the Dharmopadhā in which Suvisakha must have duly passed. The qualities and qualifications in Sanskrit original are given as the adjectives of the word amātya as follows: abhijātah (born of a high family), svavagrahah (having restraint over senses), kṛtasilpah (skilled in arts), cackṣuṣmān (possessed of the eyes of the science of polity), prājṇah (possessed of sharp intelligence), dhārayiṣṇu (endowed with a sharp memory), daksah (swift), vāgmī (endowed with oratory), pragalbhah (outspoken), pratipattimān (endowed with the power of argument), utsāhayuktah (enthusiastic), prabhāvayuktah (endowed with Prabhavas'akti), kleśasahah (capable of taking pain), sucih (duly tested by the four Upadhās), maitrah (friendly with all), dṛḍhabhaktih (having firm loyalty to the King), sīlayuktah (distinguished by good conduct), balasaṁyuktah (endowed with physical strength), ārogya saṁyuktah (endowed with a good health), sattvasaṁyuktah (endowed with patience), stambhavarjitah (free from vanity) cā palavarjjitah (free from fickleness), sampriyah (sober in look), vairāṇām akartā (one who does not create enemies). (9) Amātya is one of the seven constituents of the state (Saptaprakṛtis). AMATYA-SAMPAT--(1) The qualities and qualifications that are desired to be possessed by an ideal Amātya. In AŚ I. 9 Kauṭilya enumerates these and they number 25 including qualities of Courage (pragalbhatā), firm loyalty (dṛḍhabhakti), sharp intelligence (prājñatā), etc. (2) It is implied that one who possesses all the qualities in full is the ideal Amātya or the Amātya of the best type. (3) One who possesses three-fourths of these qualities is of the medicore type, and (4) One who possesses half of these qualities is an Amātya of the inferior type. (5) These are also often referred to as Amātyaguṇas. AMITRA--See Ari. AMITRABALA--The armed force of the enemy Kingdom (AŚ II. 33. etc.). AMITRASAMPAT--The weak points on the part The presence of these weak points or faults on the part of the enemy makes him easily vulnerable. These are enumerated in AŚ VI. 1. ARĀJAKA--A state without a King. (1) In Rāmāyaṇa this term is used to describe the condition of a Kingdom in between the death of a King and his succession. Such a situation arose immediately after the death of Daśaratha. According to Rāmāyaṇa also Mātsyanyāya (q.v.) comes into existence in such a state. Vide Rāmāyaṇa, Ayodhyā Kāṇḍa, ch. 67 (whole) and Cf. nārājakāe janapade svakaṁ bhavati kasyacit matsyā iva janā nityaṁ bhakṣayanti parasparaṁ (Ibid., Sl. 31). (2) In Mahābhārata, this term is used to describe the primordial condition of the society, when there was no King at all. In the initial stage, due to the absence of a King there arose an extreme form of lawlessness, technically called the Mātsyanyāya. Then the people came into a mutual agreement (samaya), and finally at the instance of lord Brahmā, they had Manu as the first King. Cf. Mahābhārata, Śānti Parva, Ch. 59. Ślokas 13-22 and arājakāh prajāh sarvvī pūrvaṁ vineśuriti naḥ śrutam parasparaṁ bhakṣayanto matsyā iva jale kṛśān sametya tāstataścakruh samayān iti naḥ śrutam (Ibid., ch. 67, Slokas 17 ff.). (3) In the Jaina Acārāṅgasūtra it is advised that one should not live in an Arājaka state. arāyāṇi vā gaṇarāyāṇi vā jubarāyāṇi vā dorajjāṇi vā verajjāņi vā viruddha rajjāṇi vā, etc. (Ācārāṅgasūtra, II. 3. 1. 10). (Skt. arājakāni=Pkt. arāyāni). Jayaswal takes this term of the Jain work to mean, 'an idealistic constitution' providing an 'extreme form of democracy' 'tried more than once in this country'. Jayaswal, Hindu Polity, pp. 82-84. For explaining as to how this form of government worked Jayaswal cites the instance of the primordial Kingless condition of the society as described in the Mahābhārata, quoted above. But this assumption of Jayaswal is based on the solitary evidence of the Ācārāṅgasūtra. But it appears to us that after the institution of the Kingship there should not have been the occasion for the recurrence of the primordial type of Arājaka described in the Mahābharāta, and there could have been only casual conditions of anarchy as described in the Rāmāyaṇa, and the Kingdoms were very likely to face such situations from time to time. In the Jaina Ācārāṅgasūtra it appears to be most likely to refer to only such a casual state of anarchy as of the Kingdom of Ayodhyā after the demise of Daśartha because of being mentioned along with other regular types of government. Such a condition could have been happening in a certain state, while, others advised to be avoided, suffering from bad type of government like Dvairājya and Vairājya, etc. (qq. v.) ARI-- (1) An enemy King. (2) =Amitra. (3) =Śatru. (4) There are three broad varieties of enemy Kings, viz., Prakṛtyamitra, (the immediate neighbouring Kings in the rear and in the front of the Vijīgisu), bhūmyanantarah prakṛtyamitrah (AŚ. VI. 2). Sahaja-śatru (the enemy by birth) and Kṛtrima-amitra (the enemy who indulges in opposition or instigates others to oppose due to clash of interest). tulyabhijanaḥ sahajaḥ (Ibid). viruddho virodhayitā vā kṛtrimaḥ (Ibid). ARI-PRAKṚTI--The King whose Kingdom surrounds the Kingdom of the Vijīgiṣu (Aggressor) or stands immediately contiguous to the territory of the latter is called Ariprakṛti. (See Maṇḍala, where this King is mentioned simply as Ari, enemy). ARI-MITRA--One of the Kings forming the Maṇḍala (see Maṇḍala). He is fourth from the Vijīgiṣu (Aggressor) or the King belonging to the centre of the Maṇḍala ; stands adjacent to the Mitra, ally; but possesses friendship with Ari, the enemy. ARIMITRAMITRA--The last of the circle of allied and enemy Kings. He is the ally of the ally of the Ari, enemy. He belongs to the fringe of the circle of allied and enemy Kings (see Maṇḍala) standing beyond the Mitramitra. ARTHA-TRIVARGA-- Artha (wealth), Dharma (Pity) and Kāma (Enjoyment) taken together are called Artha-trivarga (AŚ X. VII). artho dharmaḥ kāma ityarthatrivargaḥ. ARTHAŚĀSTRA--(1) Text on polity ascribed to Kauṭilya. (2) Science of politics. The usual meaning of the word Artha is money. Hence, the term Arthas'āstra seems to denote economics and not politics as such. Kauṭilya says that Artha means avocations of men; the word also means the land filled with men. Hence, the term Arthaśāstra means the science, which deals with the acquisition and protection or governance of the land inhabited by the people. manuṣyāṇaṁ vṛttirarthaḥ. manuṣyavatī bhūmi-rarthaḥ; tasyah pṛthivyā lābhapālanopāyah śāstram arthaśāstram iti. (AŚ XV. 1). The variant reading manuṣyavatī bhūmiritiyarthah (AŚ Basak, Vol. II. p. 159) is not suitable. Kauṭilya also applies the term Arthaśāstra to all the earlier treaties on politics. Cf. pṛthivyā lābhe pālane ca yāvantyarthaśāstrāṇi pūrvācāryaih prasthāpitāni (AŚ the first sentence). (3) According to Śukranītisāra (IV. 5. 56) Arthaśāstra discusses instructions about the government as well as the acquisition of wealth. (4) Kauṭilya uses the term Daṇḍanīti also in the sense of Arthasastra. cf. ānvīkṣikītrayī vārtā daṇḍanītiśceti vidyāḥ (AŚ I. 1) etc. (5) In Daṇḍin's Daśakumāracrita, the science of politics is called Daṇḍanītī cf. adhīṣva tāvaddaṇḍanītim. iyamidānimācaryaviṣṇuguptena mauryārthe ṣaḍbhiḥ ṣlokasahasraiḥ saṁkṣiptā. (BK. I.) (6) In Mudrārāksasa of Visakhadatta the term Arthaśāstra itself is used. Cf... iha khalvarthasastrakārā strividhāṁ siddhimupaṛāvanayanti, (Act. III). (7) In Amarakoṣa, Daṇḍanīti is given as a synonym of Arthaśāstra. Cf. ānvikṣīkī daṇḍanīti-starkavidyārthaśāstrayoḥ (Svargavarga). Earlier, Māhabhārata had the term Rājadharma in the sense of the science of polity. cf. sarvasya jīvalokasya rājadharmaḥ parāyaṇam (Mhb. XII. 56-3). (8) In later times, the term Nītiśāstra (being an abridgement of the term Rājanītiśāstra) came to be used in the sense of the science of politics. cf. sarvopajīvakaṁ lokasthitikṛnnīti śāstrakam (Śukranītisāra, 1—5). (9) Rājadharma, meaning the whole Duty of the King, is mainly concerned with the spiritual good of the individual King. Arthaśāstra is mainly concerned with the security and prosperity of the state as a whole. U.N. Ghoshal, HIPI, p. 82. (10) See also Dandanīti for a suggested distinction with Arthaśāstra. ARDHASĪTIKA--A cultivator who pays half of the produce to the owner of the land. (AŚ II. 24 and III. 11). AVAKRAYAṆA--Rent for a hired house. (AŚ III. 8). AVAKRETĀ--A landlord who lets out a house for rent. (AŚ III. 8). AVAMARDA--Occupation of the enemy's fort. The procedure for this operation is described in AŚ XIII. 4. AVARODHA--(1) Siege or blockade of enemy's fort. (2) Harem. Cf. śuddhāntaś cāvarodhaśca (Amarakośa, puravarga). (3) Same as Avarodhana. AVARODHANA--(1) Siege or blockade of enemy's fort. (2) Harem. Cf. stryāgāraṁ bhubhujām antahpuraṁ syādavarodhanam (Amarakośa, puravarga). (3) Same as Avarodha. (4) Same as Prakrit Orodhana. Cf. Line 6 in Aśoka's Fifth Rock Edict: Mansehra version. (Select Inscriptions, p. 23). AŚVAMEDHA--The royal horse-sacrifice, which used to be performed by Kings who desired to attain supremacy over neighbouring Kings. A specially consecrated horse used to be set free for one year to roam over the neighbouring countries, the Kings whereof were forced to do homage or fight. Cf. Basham, The Wonder that was India, p. 42. The details of this sacrifice are given in Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa XIII. In inscriptional records, we find kings often boasting of having performed one or two Aśvamedha sacrifices. AŚVAVYŪHA--A battle-order which consists of cavalry soldiers (aśva). (AŚ X. 5). AŚVĀDHYAKṢA--Superintendent of horses. This officer was responsible for the training and wellbeing of all the horses of the state. (AŚ II. 30). ASURAVIJAYĪ--(1) One of the three kinds of Conquerors, the other two being Dharmavijayī and Lobhavijayī. (AŚ XII. 1). (2) This conqueror is satisfied not only by grabbing the land and wealth of the defeated King but also by taking the life of his sons and wives. Cf. bhumi-dravya-putra-dārā prāṇaharaṇena asuravijayī (AŚ XII. 1). AHITA--A person who stands surety. (AŚ II. 1, III. 13, etc.). ĀKARĀDHYAKṢA--The Superintendent of Mines (AŚ II. 12). ĀKRANDA--(1) One of the Kings forming the circle of allies and enemies of the Maṇḍala theory. (2) When the Aggressor (Vijīgiṣu) starts out on a military expedition, one immediately adjacent to him from behind, called Pārṣṇigrāha, creates trouble for him, while the Ākranda, whose territory is separated by that of the Pārṣṇigrāha, plays the role of an ally for the Aggressor (AŚ VI. 2), and prevents the Pārṣṇigrāha from his aggressive designs. Cf. Vijīgiṣorariṁ prati niryātasya yah pṛṣṭhavartī nṛpatih deśākramaṇādyācarati sa pārṣṇigrāhah. tasya tathā kurvato yo niyāmakah, tasyānantaro nṛpatih sa ākrandah (Kulluka's Com. on Manu Samhitā, VII. 207). ĀKRANDASARA--(1) One of the Kings forming the circle of allies and enemies in the Maṇḍala theory. (2) The territory of this King stands fifth to that of the Aggressor, (Vijīgiṣu), from behind. (3) He is separated from the Ākranda by the Pārṣṇigrāhāsāra, and he works as an ally of the Ākranda and hence as an ally of the Vijīgiṣu, the central figure of the Maṇḍala (q.v.) (AŚ VI. 2) ĀṬAVIKA-- (1) One of the 18 Tīrthas (q.v.) recognised by Rāmāyaṇa and the Tilaka Com. thereon (Rāṣṭrāntapāla). (2) One of the 18 Mahāmātras or Tīrthas recognised by Kauṭilya. (AŚ I. 12). This officer is in charge of the administration of the forest areas, obviously lying at a considerable distance from the capital. (3) In AŚ V. 1. This officer is called Ațavī. (4) He is sometimes referred to also as Aṭavīpāla. ĀTAVIKARĀJA--A Forester King. Apparently different from the Āṭavika (also called Aṭavīpāla). There were several small forest kingdoms in central India (see under Āṭavīrājya). Samudragupta takes pride in having subdued all the Forester Kings. Cf. paricārakīkṛta sarvāṭavika rājasya. (Allahabad Stone Pillar Inscription of Samudragupta, Line 21). ĀTMOPANIDHĀNA--(1) One of the five varieties of Sāma (conciliation) (AŚ II. 10). (2) It is an act of surrender with a statement as follows --"I am not different from you. You may use all my wealth for your purposes with pleasure". (AS' II. 10). Cf. "yo'ham sa bhavān yan mama dravyaṁ tadbhavatā svakṛtyeṣu prayojyatām". ityātmopanidhānam iti. (AŚ, II. 10). ĀTYAYIKA (-KĀRYA)--An emergent situation requiring immediate action. The King is advised to call a meeting of the ministers (mantriṇaḥ) and of the committee of executive officers (mantripariṣad) for consultation as soon as such a situation arises. cf. ātyayike kārye mantriṇo mantripariṣadaṁ cāhūya brūyāt (AŚ I. 15). In AS' I. 19 Kauṭilya observes-the King should pay immediate attention to all the ātyayika kāryas, and such situations should never be allowed to pass unheeded. (sarvam ātyayikaṁ kāryaṁ śṛṇuyānnātipātayet). ĀDHĀTĀ--One who keeps the Ādhi with the creditor (AŚ, III. 12). ĀDHI=(1) 'Pledge or mortgage of a chattel or immovable property to the creditor himself with or without possession'. (HD. III. p. 419. f.n. 681). (2) Vide AŚ III. 1, III. 12, etc. and Manu Saṁ VIII. 143-145. (3) Medhatithi under Manu Saṁ, VIII. 143. divides Ādhi into 2 types, viz. Gopya. (which is simply to be retained without any enjoyment) and Bhogya (which may be enjoyed by the creditor, while retained with him). Bhogya again is divided into two types, viz. that which yields a perennial enjoyment and that which yields a periodical enjoyment. (4) Cf. also Yājñavalkya, II. 58 where it is maintained that the Ādhi is forfeited if it is not released by such a time during which the profit yielded by it amounts to two times of its original value. (5) Medhatithi under ManuSaṁ, VIII. 149 explains Ādhi as a 'bandhakadravya' and mentions go (cow), bhū (land), hiraṇya (gold) as examples. ĀDHIPATYA--(1) A type of monarchy. The term occurs in an oath of the Aitareya Brāhmaṇa (VIII. 15) (2) Sāyana explains the term as 'lordship over the other Kings of heaven' after retirement from the earth. (3) A.B. Keith renders the term as 'overlordship'. Basu, IAB, pp. 87 f.. ĀBHYANTARA KOPA--Antagonism towards the King on the part of any one of the Mantrī, the Purohita, the Senāpati and the Yuvarāja. (AŚ IX. 3). mantripurohitasenā patiyuvarā jānāma nyatamakopo'bhyantara kopah. ĀYA--State Revenue or the income of the State. (Yājñavalkya, I. 322, 326 etc. Manu Saṁ, VIII. 419). What is received by the King in the countryside as revenue (Bhāga) is also called Āya. Cf. grāmeṣu svāmigrāhyo bhāga āyaḥ (Siddhāntakaumudī, quoted by Apte, p. 84). ĀYATIPRADARŚANA--One of the five varieties of Sāma (conciliation). It is based on a reference to the prospect of mutual benefit that should result from the policy of friendship. cf. asminnevaṁ kṛta idamavāyorbhavatītyāśājananam āyatipradaraśanam (AŚ II. 10). ĀYAMUKHA--The chief sources of income of the State. They are seven in number, viz. Mūla, Bhāga, Vyājī, Parigha, Klṛpta, Rūpikā and Atyaya (vide AŚ II. 6). ĀYAŚARĪRA--(1) Sources of State Revenue, viz. Durga, Rāṣṭra, Khani, Setu, Vana, Vraja, Vanik-Patha and their sub-varieties. (vide AŚ II. 6). ĀYUKTA—(1) An officer in general. P. V. Kane. History of Dharmas'āstra, Vol. III. Appendix, Note 191. (2) A Governor of a district or subdivision. (Vide Kāmasūtra, V. 5.5.) (3) The term may often be equated to Āyuktaka, Āyukta-puruṣa and also Yukta and Yuktaka. Cf. Āyuktaka in D. C. Sircar. Indian Epigraphical Glossary, p 42. Cf. also Kāmandakīya Nītisāra, V. 81. (4) As opposed to the term Anāyukta (AŚ II. 13) used in the same context, the term Āyukta means 'an authorised official' while the former means an unauthorised official or employee. ĀYUKTAKA--See ĀYUKTA. ĀYUKTA PURUṢA--See ĀYUKTA. ĀYUDHĀGĀRA--An armoury or arsenal. (Vide AS' II. 18 and Manu Saṁ IX. 280). ĀYUDHĀGĀRĀDHYAKṢA--The superintendent of the royal armoury. His duties are given in detail in AŚ II. 18. ĀVALĪYASA--Code of conduct for a comparatively weaker King. This is discussed in detail by Kauṭilya in AŚ XII. ĀSANA --(1) Maintaining a post against an enemy standing firm so as to repel a charge, (opp. Yāna). (2) It is one of the six modes of foreign-policy, together called Ṣāḍguṇya (c.v.) (3) It is also sometimes called Upekṣaṇa (AŚ VII. 1, Kulluka on Manu Saṁ VII. 160), Upekṣā (Mitākṣarā on Yājñavalkya, I. 347), Sthāna (Manu Saṁ VII. 190) and Avasthāna (Kulluka on Manu Saṁ VII. 190). Cf. upekṣaṇam āsanam (AŚ VII. 1). (4) Kauṭilya observes that Sthāna, Āsana and Upekṣaṇa are synonymous. Cf. sthānam āsanam upekṣaṇam cetyāsanaparyāyah (AŚ VII. 4). But yet there are slight differences, when the Aggressor being equal in strength with the Enemy waits for a further increase in his strength it is called Āsana. When the strength of the former is less than that of the latter, it is called Sthāna, and when there is indifference in respect of the application of the expedients (Upāyas), it is called Upeksana. Cf. vis'eṣastu-guṇaikadeṣe sthānam, svavṛddhi-prāptyartham ā sanamupāyānām aprayoga upekṣaṇam iti (AŚ VII. 4). ĀSĀRA-- (1) Asara is an ally who belongs to the rear of the Aggressor (Vijīgiṣu), while the ally belonging to a territory which stands ahead of the Aggressor is called Mitra. (AŚ. VII. 4 etc.). Cf. mitram ākrandaśca me śuravṛddhānu-raktaprakṛtih (AŚ VII. 4). (2) This term is often appended to other terms e.g. Ākrandāsāra. (see Maṇḍala). (3) Movements of an army in an out-spreading manner. (Amarakośa Kṣatriyavarga). Cf. syādāsārah prasāraṇam. UCCHEDANIYA--One of the four broad varieties of enemy, the other three varieities being, Yātavya, Pīḍanīya and Karśanīya. This term implies an enemy fit to be totally uprooted. It is advised that an enemy who has no shelter (i.e., no fort and no ally) or whose shelter (āśraya) is weak is to be reckoned as an Ucchedanīya enemy. Cf. anapāśrayo durbalāśrayo vā ucchedanīyaḥ (AŚ VI. 2). UTTAMA--SĀHASA--DANDA--(1) A fine, ranging between five hundred and one thousand Paṇas. (AŚ III. 18). pancaśatāvaraḥ sahasrapara uttamaḥ sāhasadaṇḍaḥ. That the numerals here refer to the quantity of Paṇas may be gathered from the definition of Purvasāhasa daṇḍa. (2) Manu calls it Uttama-Sāhasa and fixes the penalty at 1000 Paṇas. (Manu Saṁ. VIII. 138). UTTHĀNA--A King's quality of remaining ever active and energetic. The opposite is Anutthāna. Kauṭilya is all praise for Utthāna, and he denounces Anutthāna in very strong terms. The former is the source of all wealth and prosperity while the latter is the cause of loss of all that is gained and all that is yet to accrue. cf. arthasya mūlam utthānam anarthasya viparyayaḥ anutthāne dhruvo nāśaḥ prāptasyā nāgatasya ca prāpyate phalam utthānāllabhate cārthasampadam (AŚ I. 19). UTSĀHA GUNAS--A King's qualities of prowess or enterprise. Kauṭilya names them as follows: Śaurya (fearlessness), Amarṣa (intolerance for the evil), Śīghrata (promptness in action), Dākṣya (dexterity in all affairs). (AŚ VI. 1). UTSAHASAKTI--A King's power arising out of martial spirit and physical prowess. See Śakti. UDAYA--A profit. (AŚ III. 12). UDĀSĪNA--(1) One of the Kings forming the circle of allies and enemies of the Maṇḍala theory. (See Maṇḍala). (2) The territory of this King belongs either to the right or to the left of the Aggressor (Vījigiṣu). (3) He is an indifferent King and stands outside the circle of the Aggressor, his enemies, and the intermediate King. He is by far the mightier King and is in a position to favour the Vijīgiṣu (Aggressor), the Ari (enemy of the Aggressor) and the Madhyama (the intermediate King) when they are engaged in a conflict or even when they remain in amity or to punish them when they are engaged in a conflict. Cf. ari-vijīgiṣu-madhyānāṁ bahiḥ prakṛtibhyo balavattaraḥ saṁhatāsaṁhatanam ari-vijīgiṣu madhyamanamanugrahe samartho nigrahe cāsaṁhatānāmudāsīnaḥ (AŚ VI. 2). UDĀSTHITA--A spy in the guise of a mendicant. (AŚ I. 11). UDRANGA--(1) Bhāgakara in the sense of land-revenue. Cf. A. S. Altekar, SGAI, p. 270. (2) In the Banskhera C. P Harṣa vardhana, (line 9) the donated land is said to be sodraṅga. Raj Bali Pandey, Historical and Literary Inscriptions, p. 146. What is possibly meant is that the donee will be entitled to receive land tax from the subtenants from the donated land (just as the King receives his Bhāga or Udraṅga). UPAGATA--(1) One who offers himself to a man other than his father as a son or is himself offered by his relatives (other than parents) to another man as son is called an Upagata son. Cf. svayaṁ bandhubhirvā putrabhāvopagata upagataḥ, AŚ III. 7. (2) In Manu Saṁ IX. 177 this very type of son seems to be called Svayaṁdatta. UPAGHĀTA--(1) Secret murder through the application of poison etc. (AŚ IV. 4) (2) Harm done to others (Manu Saṁ II. 179). (3) Loss of material (Yājñavalkya smṛti. II. 256). UPADHĀ--(1) Test for ascertaining loyalty and integrity of royal officers. Generally four kinds of such test are recognised, viz. Dharmopadhā (test of virtue), Kāmopadhā (test of desire), Arthopadhā (test of greed for wealth), Bhayopadhā (test of courage on occasions of fear). The detailed procedure of applying these tests is given in AŚ I. 10. (2) Kauṭilya suggests that only one who can pass in all the Upadhās should be appointed a Minister. (sarvopadhāśuddhān maṇtriṇaḥ Kuryāt) (AŚ I. 10). (3) Mahābhārata gives the number of Upadhās to be five while the Kālikāpurāna, a much later work, illustrates only three Upadhās, viz. Dharmopadhā, Arthopadhā and Kāmopadhā. nityaṁ pancopadhātītair mantrayet saha mantribhih (Mbh. XII. 83. 52). Nilakaṇtha, commenting on this, takes the meaning of Upadhā as Chala (i.e., fraud or trick or deception) and gives a very queer explanation. According to his interpretation, there are three basic Upadhās, viz. Vaciki (oral), Kāyikī (physical) and Mānasikī (mental). Through various combinations we have five varieties, viz., (i) Vācikī, (ii) Kāyikī, (iii) Mānasiki, (iv) Kāyikī cum Vācikī and (v) Kāyikī cum Vāciki cum Mānasikī. Cf. Kālikāpurāṇa, 87. 776-96a. UPAJĀPA--Causing of dissension in the camp of enemy. (AŚ I. 13. VII. 5, etc.) Cf. (Śiśupālavadha II. 99 and Kirātārjunīya. II. 47. UPANIDHI--(1) A sealed deposit, deposited with a person in a sealed container without disclosing the contents. (cf. Manu Saṁ VIII. 145, 149 and Medhātithi thereon. śāstrāntaravadantarhito nyāsah. yadapradarśitarupam sacihavastrādinā pihitaṁ nikṣipyate. See S. C. Banerji, A Glossary of Smrti Literature, p. 21 for other references. (2) Kauṭilya uses the term in the sense of a trust, for he speaks of enjoying the Upanidhi. (AŚ III. 12). Cf. upanidhibhoktā deśakālānurupaṁ bhogavetanaṁ dadyāt (AŚ III. 12). UPANIPĀTA--Calamity or damage caused to any merchandise by the state (rājā), thief, fire and water. Cf. raja-corāgnyudakabādhā upanipāta (AŚ III. 15). UPANISAT-PRAYOGA--Secret use of fire, poison, etc. for the killing of enemy. The details are described in AŚ Book XIV. UPĀYUKTA--(1) A responsible and fully authorised official (AŚ II. 9). (2) This officer is immediately higher in rank than the Yukta, for whenever there is any doubt regarding the conduct of a Yukta, the King should make an enquiry from the Upāyukta.(AŚ II. 8). UPASTHANA--(1) A waiting hall for the subjects coming to meet the King. (AŚ I. 19, X. 1). (2) Āsthānamaṇḍapa in the same sense as in 1. (3) A type of training for the elephants. (AŚ II. 32). (4) One of the ten assigned functions of a Koṣṭhāgārādhyakṣa (q.v.), is called Upasthāna, which is, again, found in six forms mainly concerned with measurement of materials. The details are given in AŚ II. 15. UPASTHAYIKA--Men engaged for looking after the elephants and other such animals. Their pay is fixed at 60 paṇas yearly by Kauṭilya. (AŚ V. 3). UPAYA--(1) A means of success against an enemy (Apte). (2) There are four such Upāyas, viz. Sāma (conciliation or negotiation), Dāna (bribery or gift), Bheda (sowing of dissensions) and Daṇḍa (punishment or military action). (3) Kauṭilya also gives the term Upapradāna for Dāna. Cf. Upāyassāmo-papradānabhedadaṇḍaḥ (AŚ II. 10). (4) Manu seems to give the word Yuddha also for Danḍa, for he advocates that it is better to try to win the enemy with any one of Sāma, Dāna and Bheda or with all of them put together, but never with Yuddha. Thus, he uses the word Yuddha, where he should have given the term Daṇḍa. Cf. sāmnā dānena bhedena samastair athavā pṛthak vijetuṁ prayatetārin na yuddhena kadācana (Manu Saṁhitā. VII. 198). (5) But, earlier Manu had already observed by expressly mentioning the term Daṇḍa, that of the four Upāyas, Sāma and Daṇḍa are the best. Cf. sāmādīnāmupāyānaṁ caturṇāṁ api paṇḍitāḥ sāmadaṇḍau praśaṁsanti nityaṁ rāṣtrābhivṛddhyaye (Manu Saṁ. VII. 109). (6) From the immediately earlier verse we learn that the enemy is to be brought under control even by Daṇḍa if the earlier three Upāyas do not work well (Manu Saṁ. VII. 108). From Kulluka's com. we learn that Daṇḍa is praised because of its being the most effective expedient though it involves loss of soldiers etc. Cf. sāmni prayāsa-dhana-vyaya-sainya-kṣayādidoṣābhāvāt, daṇḍe tu tatsad-bhāvepi kāryasiddhyatiśayāt (Kulluka's com. on Manu Saṁ. VII. 109). By this explanation of Kulluka it becomes confirmed that in VII. 198, Manu uses the term Yuddha in the sense of Daṇḍa. We are also led to believe that in the confirmed opinion of Manu it is better to avoid Yuddha or Daṇḍa, though it deserves to be praised as the most effective expedient. Yājñavalkya (I. 346) also instructs that Daṇḍa should be taken resort to only as the last measure. Kāmandaka adds to the traditional list of four Upāyas, three more, and they are viz. Māyā (deceit), Upekṣā (indifference) and Indrajāla (creation of illusions). (See Kāmandakīya Nītisāra, Canto XVIII for details). UPEKṢAṆA-ASANA (q.v.) or STHĀNA (q.v.) See Ṣadguṇa. UBHAYAVETANA--A type of spy, who receives pay from his actual master as well as from the latter's enemy, with a feigned allegiance for causing confidence in the mind of the enemy, for the convenience of spying in the best interest of the actual master. (AŚ VII. 14. etc.). UBHAYAYĀTTĀ-SIDDHI—Joint administration. An administration conducted jointly by the King and the Minister, working in full consonance. This term is used in Mudrāràkṣasa. III. See Siddhi. URASYA--The middle portion of an army. The other parts are the two paksas (the two wings or frontal sides) and the two Kakṣas (the two flanks or the two hinder parts) Cf. pañcadhanuranīkasandhiḥ pakṣakakṣorasyānām (The five parts of the army, viz. the two Paksas, the two Kaksas and the Urasya should usually have a gap of 5 dhanus or 25 hands or 12 1/2 yards between one another). AŚ X. 5 cf. also pakṣa-kakṣcrasyānām ekībhāve maṇḍalah (AŚ X. 6). EKRĀT--The sole unrivalled ruler. See Sārvabhauma. AUDAKA-DURGA--(1) Water Fort (vide AŚ II. 3). (2) Ap-Durga (Abdurga) of Manu. (vide MS. VII. 70). AURASA-PUTRA--(1) A son begotten by a man on his duly married wife. Cf. svayaṁ jātaḥ kṛtakriyāyām aurasaḥ (AŚ II. 7). Cf. Manu Saṁ. IX. 166 for a definition. (2) Also called Svayaṁjāta by Kauṭilya (AŚ III. 7). KAKṢA-- (1) Usually mentioned in duel number as KAKṢAU. (2) The two hinder parts of an army which is recommended to be arranged in five parts as follows, the two front parts called the 2 Pakṣas, the two hinder parts called the Kakṣas and the middle part called the Urasya (q.v.) (see AŚ X. 5. X. 6 etc.) KAṆTAKA--(1) An antisocial element. (2) Any source of vexation to the State and the society like a thief. (AŚ VI. 1, Manu Saṁ. IX 252, 253, 260). (3) Medhātithi on Manu Saṁ IX. 252 observes-kaṇṭakaśabdaḥ pīḍāhetusāmānyāt taskarādīṣu (Anti-social elements like the thief are called Kaṇṭaka because of causing pain or vexation like the thorn). KAṆṬAKAŚODHANA--Legal procedure for punishing the anti-social elements. Three judicial magistrates called Pradeṣṭā, well equipped with the Amātyaguṇas and also belonging to the status of a Mahāmātra, form a court of trial for dealing with cases of misappropriation, bribery and other such corruptions. (AŚ IV. 1, etc.). Cf. Manu Saṁ., IX. 253. KARA-- (1) Any sort of revenue or tax or duty payable to the state. Land tax, customs duties, annual revenue and all sorts of levies are meant by the term when Manu discusses about the whole system of Kara in Manu Saṁ, VII. 127 to 137. (2) Amara gives Bali and Bhāgadheya as synonyms of Kara. bhāgadheyah karo bali (Amara, Kṣatriya Varga). (3) Kauṭilya mentions it as one of the ten varieties of Rāṣṭra in AŚ II. 15, where it occurs side by side with Piṇḍakara (tax in kind received from the countryside in a regular manner), Ṣadbhāga (one sixth of the land produce) and Bali (additional levies). Here Kara seems to mean the tributes received from feudatory Kings. (4) Kauṭilya also keeps in mind the broader meaning of Kara as a tax in general when he uses the term to form the larger term Piṇḍakara. (5) 'A tax in general' in the Smṛti literature. Cf. akarah śrotriyah, (Āpastamba Dharmasutra, II. 10.26.1), brāhamaṇebhyah karādānaṁ na kuryāt (Viṣṇu Dharma Sutra III. 25). (6) A nice example of the term being used in the sense of 'a tax in general' is found in the Allahabad Stone Pillar Inscription of Samudragupta, where it is used with the word sarva (all) to mean 'all sorts of taxes and tributes'. sarvva-kara-dānājñakaraṇa (line 22) in ASPI of Samudragupta. vide D. C. Sircar, Select Inscriptions, Vol. I, p. 165. KARMAKARA--(1) A servant. He used to get a mutually agreed salary. (AŚ III. 13). Cf. karmakarasya karmasambandham āsannā vidyuḥ yathasambhāṣitaṁ vetanaṁ labheta. (The neighbours should have the knowledge of the appointment of a new servant in any of the families of the neighbourhood. The servant should receive an agreed salary.) (2) It seems that the status of a Bhṛtaka, (q. v.) who also used to get a regular salary, was higher than that of the karmakara. (3) The status of the karmakara seems to have been higher than that of the Dāsa (q.v.) KARMA-SACIVA--A minister responsible for action or execution (opposite to Dhī-saciva, who is a minister for counsel). See Saciva. KARMA-SANDHI--Treaty involving an agreement by both the parties to work for the construction of fort and other such works. Cf. 'tvaṁ cāhaṁ ca durgaṁ kārayāvahe' iti karmasandhiḥ (AŚ VII. 12). KARŚANĪYA--One of the four broad varieties of enemy, the other varieties being Yātavya, Ucchedanīya, and Pīḍanīya. When conditions are just the reverse of under which an enemy is reckoned as Ucchedanīya, the enemy is to be treated as either Pīḍanīya or karśanīya. The present term implies that the enemy is fit to be troubled by way of putting him to loss of wealth. cf. viparyaye pīḍanīyaḥ karśanīyo vā (AŚ VI. 2). KĀNĪNA--The son born to a woman before her marriage, is called a Kānīna-putra of the man who marries her. Manu Saṁ. IX. 172. Cf. 'Kanyāgarbhaḥ kānīnaḥ' AŚ III. 7. KĀPATIKA--A spy in the guise of a student. (AŚ I. 10, I. 11). KĀMAJA--VYASANA(s)--Vices arising out of passion. See Vyasana. KĀRMĀNTIKA--One of the 18 Mahāmātras Tīrthas, who is the supervisor of the state-won mines and workshops. (AŚ I. 12, II. 4). KĀRVAṬIKA--(1) Khārvvaṭika, a territorial division of the state consisting of 200 villages. (Altekar, SGAI. p. 323). (2) From what is given by Kauṭilya, it seems to be a small town serving as the administrative headquarters for 200 villages cf. dviśatagrāmyā khārvaṭikam. . . . .sthāpayet (AŚ II. 1). KUMĀRĀMĀTĀ--A queen other than the chief queen, being the mother of a prince other than the crown prince. Her allowance is fixed at 12000 paṇas yearly. (AŚ V. 3). KUMĀRĀMĀTYA--Senior administrative officers of the Gupta period. It seems to have been more a title of honour. One example of Kumārāmātya is the celebrated name of Hariṣeṇa, the foreign minister of Samudragupta and the author of the text of the Allahabad Stone Pillar Inscription of Samudragupta, who is also described as Kumārāmātya. D. C. Sircar, Select Inscriptions, p. 262. This officer is called so, possibly because of attaining the status of an Amātya since his youth or because of enjoying the same status as that of an heir apparent or Kumāra. See Altekar, SGAI, p. 345. KŪṬAMUDRĀ—A counterfeit seal. (AŚ II. 34). KŪṬAYUDDHA--Treacherous fight. In this type of fight the aggressor uses fire, sword and poison against the enemy through his secret agents. The details of this treacherous warfare are given in AŚ XII. 4-5. Kauṭilya precisely defines it in AŚ, VII. 6 verse 8 as follows: vibhīṣaṇam avaskandaḥ pramādavyasanārdanam ekatra tyāgaghātauca kūṭayuddhasya mātṛkā (excessive intimidation, attack, tormentation in time of confusion and distress of the enemy, stopping of fighting in one hand and attacking on the other hand-these are the characteristics of a Kūṭayuddha). KŪṬARŪPA--Counterfeit coins. (AŚ IV. 1). KŪṬAŚĀSANA--A false or forged document. KŪṬASĀKṢĪ--A false witness. KŪPYA--(1) Certain valuable timbers, cane, bamboo, hemp, and certain other forest products, certain poisonous materials, skin and other such parts of certain animals, and certain base metals like copper and bell metal are together known by this term. (AŚ II. 17). (2) In Manu Saṁ VI. 96 and X. 113, the term seems to be used in the sense of all the base metals. KŪPYĀDHYAKṢA--The chief officer entrusted with the responsibility of collecting the materials collectively known as Kūpya for the royal store. (vide AŚ II. 17). KṚTAKA-PUTRA--(1) One who is simply accepted by a person other than his parents is a Kṛtaka-putra to the new father. Cf. putratyé dhikṛtaḥ kṛtakaḥ (AŚ III. 7). (2) The Kṛtaka type of son (putra) is neither offered by his parents nor offers himself to the new father. (3) This type of son is called Krtrima by Manu. (see Manu Saṁ. IX. 169). KṚTA (KṢETRA)--Duly cultivable land. (AŚ II. 1). KṚTYA--Disgruntled subjects who are likely to be won over by the propaganda of the enemy. (AŚ I. 13, I. 14). KṚTRIMA-PUTRA--Same as Kṛtaka-putra. KṚTRIMA-MITRA--See Mitra. KṚTRIMA-ŚATRU--The enemy who indulges in acts of hostility or instigates others to be hostile, due to clash of interest. This enemy is called artificial (Kṛtrima) presumably because, this enemy is bound to be friendly again as soon as there ceases to be any clash of interest. Vide S. Mookerjee, 'Political wisdom of ancient India', Journal of the Bihar Research Society. XXXXV, parts I-IV. December, 1959, See Ari. KOPA--(1) Disaffection or antagonism towards the King. This term is often used in conjunction with other appropriate words. See Bāhyakopa and Abhyantara-Kopa. (AŚ VIII. 2, IX. 3. etc.), which are its two main varieties. (2) Anger, recognised as a source of the vices (Vyasanas) named Vākpāruṣya, Daṇḍapāruṣya and Arthadūṣaṇa. (AŚ VIII. 3). KOŚA/KOṢA--(1) One of the seven constituents of the state (Saptaprakṛti). (2) Revenue. (3) The royal exchequer. for (1), (2) and (3) see-AŚ VI. 1 and VIII. 1. (4) Accumulation of wealth (Amara, Śāntavarga). Koso'stri kutmale khaḍge pidhane' rthaughadivyayoh. (5) Treasury or the apartment where money and other valuables are kept (Manu Saṁ. VIII. 419). 6) The royal treasury in the sense of a reserve fund. Cf. kośamulā hi rājānah kośo vṛdhikaro bhavet (Mbh. XII. 119. 16). KOŚAGṚHA--The treasury house. KOŚANIRHĀRA--Grains purchased with funds received from the royal treasury. (AŚ II. 15). KOŚĀSAṄGA --(1) Misappropriation or defalcation of the royal revenue (AŚ VIII. 5). (2) Evasion of taxes (Ibid). KOŚASAMPAT--The qualities of an ideal royal exchequer. (AŚ VI. 1). KOŚĀDHYAKṢA--The head of the Treasury Department. A. S. Altekar, SGAI p. 100, KOŚĀBHISAMHARAṆA--Adaptation of ways and means for augmenting a depleting treasury (AŚ V. 2). KOṢTHĀGĀRA--The royal granary (AŚ II. 5). KOṢTHĀGĀRĀDHYAKṢA--The superintendent of the royal granary (AŚ II. 15, where details of his duties are given). KRĪTA-PUTRA-- (1) One who is purchased from one's real parents to be treated as a son by the purchaser. Cf. pari-kritaḥ krīta iti (AŚ III. 7). (2) Also called Kritaka as in Manu Saṁ. IX. 174. KRODHAJA VYASANA(S)—Vices arising out of anger. See Vyasana. KṢATTĀ-- (1) Nom. singular form of the word Kṣattṛ. (2) The Chamberlain. As such he is one of the eleven Ratnins (q.v.) deserving special honour from the King-elect in time of his consecration. KṢETRAJAPUTRA—(1) The offspring of the wife by a kinsman duly appointed to raise up the issue on behalf of the actual husband, who is physically incapable of begetting the child himself. (Manu Saṁ. IX. 167) cf. also Yājñavalkya I, 68-69 etc. (2) Kauṭilya suggests that the kinsmen appointed may belong to the same gotra as of the actual husband or to another gotra (AŚ III. 7). KHANAKA-YODHĪ--A soldier who fights from a pit. Cf. khanakā hi khātena śastreṇa cobhayathā yudhyante (AŚ VII. 10). KHĀRVAṬIKA-KĀRVATIKA--A small town belonging to a block of two hundred villages (AŚ II. 1). dviś atagrāmyā khāṛvaṭikam (AŚ II. 1). GAṆA--(1) A republican government. Same as Gaṇa-rājya, denoting a government by an assembly or parliament. Jayaswal, Hindu Polity, p. 21 ff. cf. Mahābhārata, ŚāntiParva. ch. 107, verses 6-32, gaṇānām vṛttimicchāmi śrotuṁ matimatāṁ vara, etc. (2) A form of government, where the power was vested not in one person, but in a gaṇa or group of people. Saṁgha was another term used precisely in the same sense. Altekar, SGAI, p. 109 ff. (3) A tribal republic. Basham, The Wonder that was India, p. 41. (4) That the term implies a republican type of government, sharply different from the monarchical type is clear from an oft quoted passage of the Avadāna-Śataka, the meaning whereof is the "Your Majesty, some countries are under gaṇas and some are under Kings.'' "..deva keciddeśā gaṇādhīnāh kecid rājādhīnā iti (Avadāna Śataka, ed. Speyer, Petrograd, 1902, II. P. 103, quoted by Jayaswal, Hindu Polity, p. 26). An example of the ancient republican states is that of the Vṛṣhṇis, which used to issue coins not in the name of any single monarch but in the name of the whole gaṇa (tribe). Cf. the celebrated coin-legend, vṛṣṇi-rājanya-gaṇasya-trātasya (Jayaswal, Ibid., p. 151). In the Mahābhārata, Śānti Parva (81.29) also AndhakaVṛṣṇis are mentioned along with Yādavas, Kukuras, and Bhojas. Nārada says that all of these republics are attached to Kṛṣhṇa, presumably implying that all these republics formed a sort of federation for some time. (5) A unit of army comprising 3 Gulmas or in other words 27 chariots, 27 elephants, 81 horses, and 135 footmen. P. C. Chakravarti AWAI. p. 83. GAṆA TITHA--A member whose attendance completed the quorum in a Gaṇa or republican assembly. (Vide Altekar, SGAI. p. 131). GAṆA-PURAKA--(1) A 'whip' or an officer whose duty was to see whether the lawful quorum of a gaṇa assembly was formed before it transacted official business. Altekar, SGAI, p. 131. Jayaswal, Hindu Polity, p. 23. GAṆA-PRADHANA--(1) The President of the Governing body of a Gaṇa republic. Vide Jayaswal, Hindu Polity, p. 103. cf. Mahābhārata, Śānti Parva, ch. 107. V. 24 and see under Saṁgha-mukhya. (2) Sri Krishna was such a President of the Andhaka-Vṛishni republic. The position and privileges of such a President may be presumed from Sri Krishna's complaint to Nārada that "in the guise of a master he is the slave of the relatives forming the political community. He can have only a partial enjoyment of the pleasures of life and he has to listen patiently to all the bitter words of criticism of the members of the general republican assembly". Vide Altekar, SGAI, p. 127 and Cf. dāśyam aiśvaryabhāvena jñātināṁ vai karomyaham ardhabhoktā smi bhogānāṁ vāgduruktāni ca Kṣame (Māhābhārata Śāntiparva, ch. 81. 5). GAṆA MUKHYA--Same as Saṁgha mukhya (q.v.) GAṆA-RĀJYA--(1) A republic; same as Gaṇa, where the political power is vested not in one person, but in a gaṇa or group of people. (2) The term occurs in a celebrated passage of a Jaina work, Ācārāṅgasūtra, as follows: One "should avoid visiting such countries which have no King, i.e. no head of the government, or are governed by gaṇa form of government, or have a crown prince as the ruler, or have two kings, or are governed by a foreign ruler, or are governed by two contending Kings." "… . . .arāyāṇi vā gaṇarāyāṇi vā juarāyāṇi vā dorajjāņi vā verajjāṇi vā viruddha-rajjāṇi vā" where Pkt. gaṇarāyaṇi= Skt. gaṇarājyāṇi (=gaṇa-states) (Āvāraṁgasuttam, ed. Jacobi, II. 3.1.10., quoted by Jayaswal, Hindu Polity, p. 84). (3) On the strength of terms like Gaṇatitha, Gaṇapūraka, and Gaṇamukhya, it may be presumed that in Gaṇarajya, the political power is vested in a parliament headed by an elected president. GAṆIKĀDHYAKṢA--Superintendent of courtesans. He was responsible for controlling the entire institution of prostitution in the state (AŚ II. 27). GĀṆANIKA—An account officer. cf. AŚ II. 7. GŪḌHAJAPUTRA--(1) A son born to a woman by a man other than her actual husband through a secret union. (Manu Saṁ, IX. 170). (2) Kauṭilya suggests that the Gūḍhaja is born in the residence of some relative of the wife clandestinely. (AŚ. III. 7). GŪḌHAPURUṢA—(1) Spy. (2) Secret emissary. (3) Disguised agent. The probable varieties of such spies and their activities are described in AŚ I. 11. GUṆASAṀKĪRTANA—(1) Flattery. (2) It is one of the five varieties of Sāma (q.v.). It is in the form of the praise of family, physique, action, habit, learning and materials belonging to the party, who is to be won by this type of the policy of conciliation. Cf. abhijana-śarīra-karmaprakṛti-śruti-dravyādīnāṁ guṇāguṇagrahaṇaṁ prasaṁsā-stutirguṇasaṁkīrtanam. (AŚ II. 10). GULMA-- (1) A host of armed guards. Kulluka or Manu Saṁ, VII. 114. (2) A unit of army consisting of three senamukhas or 9 chariots, 9 elephants, 27 horses and 45 footmen. P. C. Chakravarti, The Art of War in Ancient India, p. 83. GODHYAKṢA--Superintendent of cows. This officer was required to look after the protection and well-being of all the domestic animals of the state like cows, buffaloes and goats. He was also to keep a register of the entire population of such animals of the state. (AŚ II. 29). GOPA--(1) A subordinate officer either under a Samāhartā or under a Nāgarika. (2) The Gopa under a Samāhartā works in the countryside (Janapada) and remains in charge of a minimum of five larger villages or a maximum of ten smaller villages. He keeps record of the lands under cultivation, crops grown and other such details of the whole area under his jurisdiction (AŚ III. 35). (3) The Gopa under the Nāgarika works in the city. He is in charge of a maximum of forty smaller families and a minimum of ten larger families. He keeps record of sex, caste, profession and other details of the members of the families allotted to him. (AŚ II. 36). GOVIKARTA--(1)=Govikartana. (2) One of the eleven Ratnis (q.v.). (3) The term means either 'the officer in charge of the royal herd of cattle,' or 'the master of forests cum the officer in charge of the huntsmen'. Altekar, SGAI, p. 162. Jayaswal, Hindu Polity, p. 196. GRĀMA--(1) In Ṛgveda, the term relates to a group of related families or a sect and only at a later time it came to mean a regular village or settlement. Basham, The Wonder that was India, P. 35. (2) At all times the village was the unit of government. There was no uniformity of the size of a village. A grāma could contain even as many as 1,000 families in the upper limit. Basham, Ibid, p. 104. GRĀMAṆĪ--(1) The village headman or a military captain. It is one of the few government officers mentioned in the Ṛgveda. (Vide Altekar, SGAI, p. 311). (2) He is one of the eleven Ratnis, in the capacity of the head of the Township or the village corporation, as mentioned in Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa and Taittirīya Brāhmaṇa. (Vide Jayaswal, Hindu Polity, p. 195). In Maitrāyaṇī Saṁhitā and Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa etc. i.e., the Maitrāyaṇi edn of the Yajur Veda. Cf. vāiśyo vai grmaṇiḥ. the Gramaṇī is mentioned to be of the Vaiśya caste. (3) Altekar rightly observes that to be honoured as one of the Ratnīs, the Grāmaṇī mentioned in the list of Ratnīs (as given in the Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa and other such sources) must have been "the most prominent among the village headmen of the kingdom, who might have been selected to serve on the council of the ratnīs". Altekar, SGAI, p. 162. (4) According to Basham, in the Ṛgvedic age the Grāmaṇī was the chief of the sect, because the term Grāma in the Ṛgveda usually refers to a group of kinsfolk and only in the later literature it means a regular village or a regular settlement. Basham, The Wonder that was India, p. 34 f. GRĀMABHṚTAKA--(1) Probably the village headman and same as Grāmabhartṛ or Grāmapati. P. V. Kane, History of Dharmaśāstra, Vol. III (Index). Yājnavalkya, II. 271. (2) In AŚ III. 11 the witness given by a Grāmabhṛtaka is said to be invalid. Hence, it may be presumed that the term more probably means one who depends on alms received from the whole village. Cf. AS. Trans. p. 199. (3) It may also mean a workman engaged by the entire village on payment of a certain emolument. See Bhṛtaka. GRĀMA MAHATTARA(S)--Village elders who functioned with certain executive and administrative powers in the Pallava and Vakataka kingdoms. (c. 250-550 A.D.). Altekar, SGAI., p. 230 GRĀMA MAHĀJANA(S)--Great men of the village, who, in the Karnataka region, used to manage schools, construct tanks, build rest houses and such other civil works, as evidenced by inscriptional records. Altekar, SGAI, p 235 GRĀMIKA--A village headman. (AŚ. III. 10, Manu Saṁ, VII. 116, 118). CAKRAVARTĪ--(1) Pali Cakkavatti. (2) The world ruler or the Universal Emperor. (3) According to the Buddhist tradition, the World Ruler possesses 'seven jewels' viz. the wheel treasure, the elephant treasure, the horse treasure, the treasure of a woman, the treasurer and the adviser. He also possesses five good qualities by way of knowing wealth, virtue, measure, time and the assembled men. His conquest of the quarters is achieved not by force but by righteousness. Cf Dharmavijaya. His domination over the vassals assumes the form of the enforcement of the five moral precepts binding upon the Buddhist layman. See Ghoshal, A History of Indian Political Ideas, pp. 77-79 and pp. 267 f; Basham, The Wonder that was India, pp. 83f. (4) According to Kauṭilya, however, the Cakravartī is just an emperor having political supremacy over whole of the Cakravartikṣetra, which is defined as the territory extending north to south from the Himalayas to the Southern sea and stretching from east to west for a distance of 1,000 Yojanas. Kauṭilya's concept of a Cakravartī is derived from the definition of this very term. deśah pṛthiví, tasyāṁ himavat samudrāntaram udīcīnaṁ yojanasahasraparimāṇaṁ tiryak cakravartikṣetram. (AŚ IX. I). CAKRAVARTĪ-KṢETRA—See Cakravartī. CATURAṄGA-BALA-- (1) The 'four-fold' army, consisting of foot-soldiers (patti), car-warriors (rathīs), cavalry (aśvārohīs) and elephant riders (gajarohis). The term is used to refer to all the four varieties of army together. cf. deśam alpavarṣa-paṅkam maruprāyaṁ caturaṅgabalo yāyāt. (Expedition should be made with all the four wings of army in a desert area which gets very little mud even after rains). (AŚ IX. 1). (2) Also called caturaṅga-senā or caturaṅga-camū. (3) Chariots ceased to be used at all about the seventh century A.D. Yet the term Caturaṅgabala continued to be used in inscriptions and literature till very late days. P.C. Chakravarti, The Art of War in Ancient India, p. 2. The term must have been adored by the court poets as a matter of poetical convention (Kavisamaya). (4) Besides the above classification there was also the convention of a six-fold division based on the sources of recruitment. Hence see Ṣaḍaṅga-bala. (5) The term Patti (q.v.) has yet another meaning. The infantry is also often called Padāti. CĀTURANTA--A world ruler with his territory extending up to the four oceans. (AŚ VI. 1 verse 3). CITRA GHĀTA--Capital punishment accompanied by physical torture (AŚ IV. 11). JANA--A Vedic term, which means the whole people or the whole tribe or the whole country, being an aggregate of several viśas. The chief of a Jana, being a king, is called the Janapati. Cf. viśvāmitrasya rakṣati brahmedaṁ bhārataṁ janam, 'the prayer of Viśvāmitra protects the whole people of Bhārata', (Ṛgveda. III. 53.2). JANAPATI--A Vedic term meaning a King, who is the chief of a Jana or a group of several Viśas (see Jana). JANAPADA—(1)=RĀṢṬRA. (2) =DEŚA. Cf. brahmāvartaṁ janapadam atha cchāyayā gāhamānaḥ (Meghaduta I. 49). (3) The territory of a state. (4) The country as against the city (i.e., Pura or Nagara or Durga). K. P. Jayaswal, Hindu Polity, p. 230. (5) In AŚ. II. 1, Kauṭilya discusses colonisation of the countryside (Janapada). (6) In AŚ. VI. 1, he discusses the marks of a good rural area (Janapada sampat) and in AŚ. VIII. 1, he discusses the calamities of the rural area (Janapada Vyasana). (7) According to K. P. Jayaswal the term had been used in the more ancient sources in the sense of a 'political community' (HP. p. 31) or a 'political nation' (HP. p. 43). But these meanings are controversial. (8) Village as opposed to the town (Pura). We have the term Janapadavadhū (Meghadūta, I. 16) in the sense of rural women. (9) One of the seven constituent elements (saptāṅga or saptāprakṛti) of the state. (10) In the Brāhmaṇas this term denotes both 'people' as opposed to the king and the 'land' or 'realm'. Vedic Index, Vol. I, p. 273. JANAPADA DHARMA--(1) The term occurs in Manu Saṁ. VIII. 41. (2)=Deśadharma as it occurs in Manu Saṁ. I. 118. (3) The term plainly means the 'customs of the province concerned', which should be taken Altekar, SGAI, p. 149. into consideration by the court in time of judging a dispute on inheritance, marriage, etc. (4) Deśadharma (Janapada dharma) is referred to as a source of law also by Gautama. deśajātikula-dharmā āmnāvairaviruddhāh pramāṇam (Gautama D. S. XI. 20). (5) Jayaswal takes the term to mean laws formulated by the Law making popular parliament, called Janapada. Jayaswal, H.P., p. 232. JANAPADA-SAMPAT--The good qualities and the desirable features of an ideal territory (i.e. the expanse of the land) of an ideal state. Kauṭilya gives the details in AŚ. VI. 1. JANMAN(S)—A term occurring in the Vedas, presumably means a village consisting of people having the same lineage. (see also Macdonell and Keith, Vedic Index. Vol. I). JAYA-SKANDHĀVĀRA--The victorious camp. Same as Skandhāvāra. JĀNAPADA—(1) Citizen belonging to the countryside as opposed to the people belonging to the city. The term is often found used in the plural as Jānapadāḥ. In that case it should mean the citizens of the countryside, as a whole. See Pauras and n. 1 under the same. (2) Jayaswal understands the term Jānapadāḥ, in the sense of a 'Realm Assembly' (HP. p. 229 ff) or a political institution of the type of a popular assembly with executive and judicial authority. (3) This term means the 'subjects' in Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa, XIV. 5.1.20. Vedic Index, Vol. I, p. 273. TAKṢĀ-- (1) One of the Ratnins (q.v.) named in the Maitrāyaṇī Saṁhitā (i.e. the Maitrāyaṇī edn. of the Yajurveda). (2) The plain meaning is 'carpenter'. In order to be one of the Ratnins, the Takṣā must have been the 'chief royal carpenter'. (3) Takṣā is also the name of the architect of the gods. (Apte, p. 227). Hence, it is more likely that the Takṣā was the chief royal carpenter cum state architect in chief. TĀPASA VYAÑJANA—A spy or secret agent in the guise of a mendicant (AŚ I. 16). TĪKṢṆA--An extremely courageous secret agent who would never care for his life. Kauṭilya describes that for the gain of money the Tīkṣṇas would fight even with an elephant or a snake. Cf. ye janapade śūrāstyaktāmāno hastinaṁ vyālaṁ vā dravyahetoḥ pratiyodhayeyuste tīkṣṇāḥ (AŚ I. 12). TĪRTHA-- (1) Minister. (2) Head of an administrative department. (3) There used to be 18 Tīrthas in any administrative set up. (4) According to Nītivākyāmṛta (ch. II) of Somadeva Suri, Tīrthas are the judicial and the executive officers. dharmasamavāyinah kāryasamavāyinaśca puruṣāḥ tīrtham. (5) Rāmāyaṇa (II. 100.36) mentions the term Tīrtha and mentions the number of Tīrthas to be eighteen. kaccidaṣṭādasānyeṣu svapakṣe daśa panca ca tribhistribhiravijnātairvetsitīrthāni cāraṇaih (6) The Tilaka com. on Rāmāyaṇa mentions the following officers as Tīrthas : Mantrī, Purohita, Yuvarāja, Senāpati, Dauvārika, Antaḥpurādhikṛta, Bandhanāgārādhikṛta, Dhanādhyakṣa, Rājājña-vakta, Prāḍvivāka ( = Vyavahārapraṣṭā) Dharmāsanādhikṛta Vyavhāranirṇeā (=Sabhya), Senābhṛtidānādhyakṣa, Karmante vetaṇagrāhiṇaḥ, Nagaradhyakṣa, Rasṭrantapala (Ātavika), Daṇḍaṇādhikārī and Durgapāla. (7) Kauṭilya uses the term Mahāmātra also for Tīrtha, for he also gives a list of 18 Mahāmātras and the same is identical with the list given by the Tilaka com., and a little later in the The 18 Mahāmātras are enumerated by Kauṭilya in AŚ. I.12, and they are viz. Mantrī, Purohita, Senāpati, Yuvarāja, Dauvarika, Antarvamsika, Praśāṣṭā, Samāhartā, Sannidhātā, Pradeṣṭā, Nāgarika, Pauravyavahārika, Kārmāntika, Mantripariṣadadhyakṣa, Daṇḍapāla, Durgapāla, Antapāla and Āṭavika. (According to a variant reading we should read Nāyaka for Nāgarika). See under MAHĀMĀTRA. Tilaka com. quotes a verse from some Lexicon, according to which the word tīrtha, besides other meanings, also has the meaning as the group of 18 beginning with mantrī : yonau jalavatāre ca mantryadyāṣṭādaśavapi puṇyakṣetre tathā pātre tirthaṁ syād darśaneṣvapi. same chapter, in the second verse, Kauṭilya refers to eighteen Tīrthas (Tīrtheṣvaṣṭādaśasvapi) obviously with reference to the 18 Mahāmātras. (8) Nīlakaṇṭha, commenting on Mahābhārata Śānti Parva, 57. 17, quotes 4 verses from a work called Nitiśāstra (?) containing almost an identical list of 18 Tīrthas. (mantrī+ purohitaścaiva . . . . tīrthānyaṣṭadaśaivatu). TŪṢṆĪ-DANḌA—Same as Tūṣṇīṁ-yuddha. TŪṢNĪN-YUDDHA--Same as Mantrayuddha (q.v.) TRAYĪ-- (1) The 'three Vedas' taken collectively. The three Vedas included in this term are Ṛk-, Yajuḥ-, and Sama-vedas (cf. Manu Saṁ, IV. 125). (2) It is one of the four basic sciences (Vidyās) (AŚ I. 1). (3) It forms a part of the King's curriculum of studies. He is advised to learn the sacred canon (Trayi) along with philosophy (Ānvīkṣikī) from the cultured persons. trayīm ānvīkṣikīṁ ca siṣṭebhyah (AŚ I. 5). DAṆḌA--(1) A measurement of length. It is equal to 4 Aratnis, i.e., 96 fingers and its synonyms are Dhanuḥ, Nālikā and Pauruṣa. (Vide AŚ II. 20). caturaratnirdaṇḍo dhanur nālikā pauruṣaṁ ca. (2) A punishment in general. Cf. Manu Saṁ. VIII. 126 etc. Cf. tānavamanyāmānaṁ daivo' pi daṇḍaḥ spṛśati (AŚ I. 13) etc. (3) The King's coercive authority. Cf. Manu Saṁ. VII. 14 etc. and see U.N. Ghoshal, HIPI, p. 53, for other references. (4) Attack, assault or violence. In this sense it is the last of the four political expedients (Upāyas). Cf. Manu Saṁ. VII. 109; Śiśupālavadha II 54, At VII. 198, Manu seems to equate Daṅḍa to Yuddha. Kauṭilya speaks of three varieties of Daṇḍa, viz. Vadha (killing), Parikleśa (Torturing like putting in the prison and beating), Arthāharaṇa (grabbing of wealth). Cf. vadhaḥ parikleśortha-haraṇaṁ daṇḍa iti (AŚ II. 10). (5) The military power. Cf. Manu Saṁ, "amātye daṇḍa āyatto" etc. (VII. 65). Medhātithi says-amātye senāpatau daṇḍo hastyādibalam āyattam. Medhātithi here explains Daṇḍa as the Bala comprising of elephants etc. (6) A form of military army or battle order (Vyūha). AŚ, X. 6. Cf. P. C. Chakravarti, The Art of War in Ancient India, pp. 113, 115, (7) Soldiers, as in the term Daṇḍa sampat. (AŚ VI. 1). DAṆḌANĪTĪ--(1) One of the four basic sciences (Vidyas). Cf. ānvīkṣikī trayīvārtā daṇḍanītiśceti vidyāḥ (AŚ I. 1) (2) In contrast with the definitions of Trayī and Vārtta, it is defined to be concerned with policy and impolicy. Cf. nayāpanayau daṇḍanītyām (AŚ I. 1). (3) But the acquisition and preservation of all other Three Vidyās depend on the King's coercive authority (Daṇḍa). In other words, Daṇḍanīti consists of the principles (nīti) of the said coercive authority (Daṇḍa). Cf. tasya nītir daṇḍanītiḥ (AŚ I. 4.) (4) According to Amara, it is same as Arthaśā stra (q.v.). (5) Thus Daṇḍanīti means the science of politics or polity. Cf. Raghu Vaṁśa, XVIII. 46 etc. (6) U. N. Ghoshal suggests that in Kauṭilya's Arthaśāstra a distinction is maintained between Daṇḍanīti and Arthaśāstra. Arthaśāstra is concerned with the art of government in the widest sense of the term including central and local administration, internal and external policy, civil and criminal laws and the art of warfare. But Daṇḍanīti is defined as comprising only policy and impolicy. Hence according to the earlier conceptions of these terms, Daṇḍanīti is only a branch of Arthanīti (vide U.N. Ghoshal.⠀ HIPI. p. 83 f.). This authority further maintains that 'this distinction is obliterated in fact as well as in name in the Mahābhārata and later works.' (Ibid). (7) In our opinion no such distinction is implied in the AŚ. Non-mention of Arthaśāstra as a Vidyā by Kauṭilya rather suggests that he wants to mean Arthaśāstra by the term Daṇḍanīti itself. (8) 'pṛithivyā lābhapālanopāyaḥ śāstram arthāśāstram (AŚ XV. 1).--This definition of Arthaśāstra compared with the description of Daṇḍanīti as 'alabdhalābhārthā, labdhaparirakśaṇī, vṛddhasya tīrtheṣu pratipādanī ca' seems to suggest an identity of the two. (9) Our notes on Daṇḍa would show that various connotations of the term Daṇḍa are accepted even by the same authority. As such, the description of Daṇḍanīti, as comprising of policy and impolicy, in consideration of a narrower connotation of the term Daṇḍa may be justified even though Daṇḍanītī, with a wider connotation of Daṇḍa, may be identical with Arthaśāstra. (10) =Rājanīti (cf. A. L. Basham, The Wonder that was India, p. 79). (11) This science is also called Rāja-śāstra in the Mahābhārata, Śānti Parva. (vide, Jayaswal, Hindu Polity, p. 5). (12) Mitakṣarā on Yājñvalkya. I. 313, gives the meaning of Daṇḍanīti as Arthaśāstra. DAṆḌAPARUṢYA—(1) An assault. It is a legally punishable offence. cf. AŚ. II. 27. (2) Kauṭilya names three varieties of it. They are Sparśana (touching the body of the opponent by way of assault with hand, foot, etc), Avagūrṇa (showing weapons like lances by way of attempting to assault) and Prahata (physical assault with any weapon). (See AŚ III. 19). (3) Hard or cruel infliction of punishment. In this sense it is one of the Krodhaja Vyasanas (see Manu Saṁ. VII. 48). DAṆḌAPĀLA--(1) One of the 18 Tīrthas or Mahāmātras (see AŚ I. 18). (2) = Daṇḍanādhikārī given in the Tilaka com. (as one of the Tīrthas) under Rāmāyaṇa II. 100.36. (3) He functioned probably as a head magistrate. (Cf. Apte, Students' Sansk. Eng. Dic. p. 244). (4) This officer was more probably the Commander of a certain number of soldiers-since the term Daṇḍa as used in Daṇḍasampat means Bala or soldiers (see AŚ VI. 1). DAṆḌASAMPAT--The desirable qualities of an ideal lot of soldiers. (AŚ VI. 1). DATTA--(1) A boy willingly given away for good by his parents and adopted by another person as his son. In time of giving away the offer is to be made with a formal ritual of touching water (adbhiḥ). cf. mātāpitṛbhyām adbhir datto dattaḥ. (AŚ III. 7). Manu Saṁ IX. 159, also gives the term as Datta, (2) Cf. Manu Saṁ IX. 168, where this son is called Dattrima. (3) Find the term Dattrima also in Manu Saṁ. VII. 415. (4) Also called Dattaka. cf. Yājñavalkya II. 130. DATTAKA--See Datta. DATTRIMA--See Datta. DAŚAGRĀMĪ—(1) A cluster of ten villages. (AŚ II. 35). (2) An officer (i.e. a Gopa) in charge of ten villages. (AŚ IV. 13). DĀNA--Bribery or gift. It is one of the four Upāyas (q.v.) or expedients for overcoming the enemies. Kauṭilya calls it Upāpradāna and explains it as doing good of the enemy with the gift of wealth (artha). Cf. Upapradānam arthopakāraḥ (AŚ II. 10). DĀMARIKA--A riotous person (AŚ IV. 9). DĀYABHĀGA--Partition of inheritance; division of property among heirs. DĀYĀDA--(1) One who is entitled to inheritance or a share of patrimony (AŚ III. 2, Yājñavalkya II. 118, Manu Saṁ, VIII. 160), an heir. (2) An heiress is called Dāyāda or Dāyādī. DĀSA--A slave, who is purchased for life-time with a lump sum. Such a slave can be re-sold and he may also regain freedom on payment of his price to the master (AŚ III. 13). DŪTA--(1) In AŚ I. 16, Kauṭilya describes the functions of a Dūta. Accordingly the term may mean a messenger or, an envoy, or, an ambassador or, an emissary. (2) Taking the term in general Kauṭilya classifies Dūta into three types, viz. Nisṛṣṭārtha (i.e., one who has all the qualities of an Amātya), Parimitārtha (i.e., one who possesses threefourths of the qualities of an Amātya) and Śāsanahara (i.e., one who possesses half the qualities of an Amātya) (AŚ I. 16). (3) According to K. P. Jayaswal the term Dūta, as used in Manu Saṁhitā, VII. 65-66 and Rāmā8....................................................dūte sandhiviparyayau. dūta eva hi sandhatte bhinattyeva ca saṁhatān dūtastat Kurute Karma bhidyante yena mānavāh. yaṇa, II. 100.25 and Śukranītisāra, refers to a Minister of Diplomacy. kaccijjanapado vidvān dakṣiṇaḥ pratibhānavān yathoktavādī dūtaste kṛto bharata paṇḍitaḥ. Possibly Jayaswal has Śukranītisāra, II. 87 in mind, which reads as follows-ingitākāraceṣṭajñaḥ śrutimān deśa-kālavit ṣāḍguṇyamantravidvāgmī vītabhīrudūa iṣyate. Jayaswal, Hindu Polity, p. 285. It is further pointed out by Jayaswal that in Gupta times, the term Sāndhivigrahika came to be used in place of the term Dūta in the sense of a Minister of Diplomacy, for making a distinction between the Minister of Diplomacy from the Ambassador. Jayaswal. Ibid, p. 307. (4) A careful examination of the quotations given here should show that the term means either a simple messenger or, at best, an ambassador but not a Mantri or Minister at all. Rāmāyaṇa clearly says that the Dūta should deliver the message as it is (yathoktavādī), We need not probably equate Dūta with the Sāndhivigrahika, because of the latter term's similarity with Manu's words dute sandhi viparyayau. Manu possibly means to say that treaty or conflict depend on the proper delivery of the message or proper diplo matic activities of the ambassador. (5) According to Amara, Dūta is simply 'a carrier of the message'. syāt sandeśaharo dūtaḥ (Amara, Kṣatriya varga). DURGA—(1) A fort. Cf. T. V. Mahalingam, Administration and Social Life under Vijayanagara (Index). (2) =The Fort in the sense of the capital as opposed to Janapada, Rāṣṭra or Deśa in the sense of the rest of the country. Jayaswal, Hindu Polity, p. 230. (3) One of the seven constituent elements of the state (see Saptāṅga or Saptaprakṛtayaḥ). (4) In AŚ II. 3, Kauṭilya discusses in detail as to how a Durga is to be constructed. He suggests four types of Durga, viz., Audaka-Durga, Pārvvata-Durga, Dhānvana-Durga and VanaDurga. (5) Manu discusses the varieties and equipments of Durga in MS. VIII 69-76. According to Manu there are six varieties of Durga, viz. Dhanur-Durga, Mahī-Durga, Ap-Durga, VārkṣaDurga, Nṛ-Durga and Giri-Durga. (MS VII. 70). (6) Mahābhārata, Śānti Parva (86.5) also gives six varieties, viz. Dhanva, Mahī-, Giri-, Manuṣya-,- Mṛd-, and Vana-Durga. Similar lists of varieties of Durga are given by Viṣṇu Saṁhitā (III-6), Agni Purāṇa (222. 4-5) Matsya-Purana (216, 6-7) and Rāmāyaṇa, Laṅkā Kāṇḍa 3, 20-22 etc. For details see P. C. Chakravarty, The Art of War in Ancient India, p. 134 ff. (7) The term Durga also means the revenue collected by the Samāhartā from some 22 sources viz. Sulka, Danda, Patava, etc. detailed in AŚ II. 6. DURGAPĀLA--(1) The Chief Officer in charge of the protection of the Forts. (2) One of the 18 Tīrthas (q.v.). DURGA SAMPAT--(1) Wealth and equipments of an ideal fort. (2) Vide AŚ VI. 1 for a reference and AŚ II. 3 for details. DŪṢYA--(1) Seditious, as in the expression dūṣyamahāmātra in AŚ V. 1. (2) Any state employee or any citizen engaged in sedition. DAUVĀRIKA--The chief door-keeper of the royal household. He is one of the 18 Mahāmātras. (q.v.). DROṆAMUKHA—A central town in a block of four hundred villages. catuḥśatagrāmyā droṇamukham (AŚ II. 1). One court of justice under a Dharmastha is to be located in such a town. (AŚ III. 1). DVAIDHAM--See Dvaidhibhāva. DVAIDHĪBHĀVA—(1) Duplicity. (2) It is also called Dvaidha. (3) It is one of the six modes of foreign policy (see Ṣāḍguṇya). (4) Kauṭilya explains that it is the strategy of pursuing the policy of peace (sandhi) and the policy of hostility (vigraha) at the same time. Cf. sandhi-vigrahopādānaṁ dvaidhībhāvaḥ (AŚ VII. 1). (5) Kulluka or Manu Saṁ. VII. 160 and Mītakṣarā on Yūjñavalkya Smṛti I. 347, explain this svārthasiddhaye svabalasya dvidhākaraṇaṁ dvaidhībhāvah dvaidhībhāvaḥ svabalasya dvidhākaraṇam. term as 'dividing one's army into two'. The idea, as it may be gathered from Kulluka's com. on Manu Saṁhitā VII. 173, is possibly that, it is the policy of keeping the enemy engaged with one half of the army, while remaining safe in the own fort with the other half. DVAIRĀJYA--(1) The rule of two. (2) A state ruled by two kings at the same time. (3) This term occurs in the Jaina (Ācārāṅgsūtra, quoted under Gaṇarajya (q.v.). (4) There existed such a state at Patala in Sindh in Alexander's time, "where the sovereignty was vested in two different kings hailing from different houses". Mc Crindle, The Invasion of India by Alexander the Great, p. 296, referred to by Altekar, SGAI, p. 38, n. 1. (5) It is different from a Viruddha-rājya state, presumably by being ruled by two kings acting in harmony, while in the Viruddharājya the country is ruled by two contending rulers. (6) While making an assessment of the relative merits of Dvairājya and Vairājya, Kauṭilya observes that the two kings in a Dvairājya often happen to be a father and a son, or two brothers. As such there is always a party of Yoga-Kṣema (q. v.), and the Amatyas also remain under control in a Dvairājya. pitāputrayorbhrātrorvā dvairājyaṁ tulyayoga-kṣemam amātyāvagrahaṁ vartayateti (AŚ VIII. 2). This is how, according to Kauṭilya, Dvairājya is superior to Vairājya. (q.v.). It may be noted that Kauṭilya here does not denounce a Dvairājya. The passage which has led Altekar to observe that "the Arthaśāstra does not approve of it" and Jayaswal to believe that Kauṭilya himself characterises Dvairājya "as a constitution of rivalry and mutual conflict leading to final destruction", in fact, contains the view of the Ācārya and not of Kauṭilya himself. dvairājyam anyonya-pakṣa-dveṣāṇurāgābhyāṁ parasparasaṁgharṣeṇa vā vinaśyati (AŚ VIII. 2). Altekar, Ibid. p. 38. Jayaswal, Hindu Polity, p. 81. Kauṭilya quotes the above view of the Ācārya only to say a no against it. Cf. dvairājya-vairājyayoḥ dvairājyam anyonyapakṣadveṣānurāgābhyāiṁ parasparasamgharṣeṇa vā vinaśyati. vairājyaṁ tu prakṛticittagrahaṇāpekṣi yathāsthitam anyair bhujyate ityācāryaḥ, netikauṭilyah. (AŚ. VIII. 2). This extract shows that it is the opinion of the Ācārya (and not of Kauṭilya) that a Dvairājya meets destruction through mutual hatred etc. This extract further shows that the reference to Dvairājya occurs in the context of a comparative assessment of Dvairājya and Vairājya. That both remarks about Dvāirājya and Vāirājya embody the opinion of the Ācārya is clear from the particle tu in the sentence vairājyam tu etc. R. Shamasastry attributes to the Ācārya only the remark on Vairājya. (See AS. Trans., p. 353). This rendering is not happy. R. G. Basak's Bengali translation of the above extract gives both the remarks as the view of the Ācārya. (AŚ. Bengali, Vol. II., p. 178). DHANIKA--A creditor (AŚ III. 11, Manu Saṁ. VIII. 51. Yūjñavalkya, II. 55. DHĀNVANA-DURGA--(1) Desert Fort (vide AŚ II. 3). (2) =Maru Durga of Viṣṇu Saṁhitā III. 6. (3) Dhanva Durga of Mahābhārata Śānti Parva, 86.5 and Manu Saṁ. VII. 70. The reading dhanurdurgāṇi in Manu Saṁ, VII. 70 seems to be a corruption for dhanvadurgam. (4) This fort remains surrounded by deserts and devoid of water for five Yojanas. Vide, S. C. Banerji, A Glossary of Smṛti Literature, p. 56. DHARMA--(1) Righteousness as in the Asokan Inscriptions. Cf. iyami dhamma lipi=iyaṁ dharmalipih (dharmānuvardhakaḥ lekhaḥ); Asoka's first rock edict, Girnar version. Vide D. C. Sircar, Select Inscriptions, Vol. I, p. 15 f. (2) 'Religious and ritualistic law as well as rules of morality and prudence' as in the term Dharmaśāstra. Cf. A. S. Altekar. SGAI, p. 259. (3) Virtue, being one of the four ends of human existence. Cf. dharmārthāvirodhena kāmaṁ seveta (AŚ I. 7). (4) =Dharmaśāstra, sacred canon, being one of the four sources of the state law. Cf. AŚ III. 1. (See Vivādapada). DHARMAVIJAYA--(1) Conquest by righteousness. Asoka advocates such a type of conquest for descendants in the Rock Edict XIII. (i) ayaṁ ca mukhyamataḥ vijayaḥ devāṇāṁ priyasy yaḥ dharmavijayaḥ (line 8). (ii) taṁ ca eva vijayaṁ te manyantāṁ yaḥ dharma-vijayaḥ (lines 11 and 12). The Sanskrit renderings are by D. C. Sircar. (See Select Inscriptions, p. 36 f.). From what is given in this Rock Edict, we may conclude that this type of conquest is a purely moral and cultural conquest devoid of any use of arms. (2) According to Kauṭilya, however, Dharmavijaya is also a conquest by arms; but it is characterised by the conqueror's being satisfied simply by the recognition of his suzerainty by the defeated king. Cf. teṣāṁ abhyavapattyā dharmavijayāī tuṣyati (AŚ XIII. 1.) (3) Kālidasa's concept of Dharmavijaya is very near to Kauṭilya's conception of Lobhavijaya, in. so far as Kālidasa's Dharmavijayī takes the wealth of the defeated King, though he does not grab the land of the defeated king and also does not keep him a captive. Cf. gṛhītapratimuktasya sa dharmavijayī nṛpaḥ śriyaṁ mahendra nāthasya jahāra natu medinīm. (Raghuvaṁśa. IV. 43). See also Altekar SGAI. p. 295 and Ghoshal, A History of Indian Political Ideas, p. 303 f. n. 5. DHARMAVIJAYĪ--(1) One of the three kinds of conquerors, the other two being Lobhavijayī and Asuravijayī. (AŚ XII. 1). (2) This type of conqueror indulges only in Dharmavijaya, (q.v.) and he becomes content simply by the formal recognition of his authority by the defeated king. teṣāmabhyavapattyā dharma-vijayī tuṣyati (AŚ XII. 1). DHARMASTHA--A judicial magistrate of the status of an Amatya. (AŚ III. 1). He is mainly concerned with the civil suits. Only such Amātyas who pass the test of virtue (Dharmopadhā) are to be appointed Dharmasthas. Cf. tatra dharmopadhā-śuddhān dharmasthīyakaṇṭakaśodhaneṣu sthāpayet. (AŚ I. 10). DHARMASTHĪA--The section of the Arthaśastra devoted to the functions of the Dharmastha. See Dharmastha and AŚ III. 1. DHARMOPADHĀ--Test of virtue. (See Upadhā). This is actually a test of loyalty of the Amātyas. The Purohita picks up a sham quarrel with the King and brings an allegation that the King is 'unvirtuous', and pleads that he should be removed from the throne. If an Amātya does not take side with the Purohita then he is supposed to have passed in the test of virtue. (AŚ I. 10). DHĀRAṆAKA--See Dhāraṇika. DHĀRAṆIKA--(1) A dobtor (AŚ III. 11). (2) =Dhāraṇaka, (Yājñavalkya, II. 3.63). DHĪ-SACIVA--A minister for counsel (opposite to Karmasaciva, who is a minister for action or execution). See Saciva. NĀGARAKA--Same as Nāgarika. NĀGARIKA--(1) City governor. The Samāhartā is the counterpart of the Nāgarika in respect of the administration of the countryside. Samāhartṛvannāgarika nagaraṁ cintayet (AŚ II. 36). (2) He should look after various civic affairs of the city with the assistance of the two subordinate officers called Gopa and Sthānika. Through them the Nāgarika would keep a record of the city population and the income and expenditure of the respective families. He is also to look after such civic affairs as the prevention of fire accidents. (AŚ II. 36). (3) He is one of the 18 Mahāmātras. (4) Same as Nāgaraka. Cf. D. C. Sircar, (Glossary, p. 208). (5) Same as Purapāla. Cf. Basham, The Wonder that was India, pp. 103 f. NĀYAKA—(1) A military officer at the head of ten Senāpatis. Cf. taddaśakasyaiko nāyaka iti. (AŚ X 6). (2) According to a variant reading in AŚ I. 12, we should read Nāyaka in place of Nāgarika in the list of 18 Mahāmātras, and as such this Nāyaka is to be reckoned as a Mahāmātra. NĀVADHYAKṢA--Superintendent of marine and riverine services. (AŚ II. 28). NIKṢEPA--Gold or other such valuables deposited with goldsmith etc. for making ornaments, etc. (AŚ III. 12). NIMNAYODHĪ--A soldier who fights remaining in water or other such place lower than the level of the surface of earth (AŚ VII. 10). NIYOGA--The act of begetting a child by a childless widow through an intercourse with the brother or any near kinsman of her deceased husband, as permitted by the Law. Cf. devarādvā sapiṇḍādvā striyā samyaṅ niyuktayā prajepsitā dhigantavyā santānasya parikṣaye (Manu Saṁ. 9. 59). The word niyoga is mentioned in Manu Saṁ. 9.61 and 9.62. NIVEŚANA—Marriage of a widow with a second husband. (AŚ III. 2, etc.). NIŚĀNTA--The royal abode (AŚ I. 20.). NIṢĀDA--See Pārāśava. NISṚṢTĀRTHA--Dūta--One of the three main varieties of Dūta. He possesses all the desirable qualities of an Amātya in full. Cf. amātyasampad upeto nisṛṣtārthaḥ. (AŚ. I. 16). NĪTI--(1) Derived from the root nī the word means proper guidance or direction. For the derivation of the word nīti from root nī. Cf. daṇḍena nīyate cedaṁ daṇḍaṁ nayati vā puṇaḥ daṇḍanītir iti khyātā trinlokān abhivartate (Mahābhārata. Śānti Parva, 59-78). Hence it means the code of ethics and wisdom. Cf. the title, Nītiśataka of one of the works of Bhartṛhari. (2) Most probably as an abbreviation of the term Rājanīti the present word means the science of politics. Cf. the title Nītikalpataru of a work on politics by Lakṣmīdhara (1150 A.D.). NĪTI-ŚĀSTRA--Science of polity or of general good conduct. NĪVĪ--(1) Remainder after deducting expenditure from income. (vide AŚ II. 6). (2) Capital invested in some business (vide AŚ III. 20). NṚ-DURGA--See Manuṣya Durga. NṚPA-ŚĀSTRA--The science of politics. NYĀYAKARAṆIKA--The officer responsible for settling disputes regarding a gift land. (vide Nidhanpur C. P. Grant of Bhāskaravarma). PAKṢA--(1) Usually given in duel number as PAKṢAU. (2) =The frontal two parts of a mass of army which is recommended to be divided into frontal two parts, hinder two parts and a middle part. (See Maṇḍala, Urasya, Kakṣa and cf. AŚ X. 5, X. 6, etc.). PAÑCAGRĀMĪ--(1) A cluster of five villages (AŚ II. 5). (2) An officer (i.e., a Gopa) in charge of five villages. (AŚ IV. 13). PAÑCAMAHĀVĀDYA--See Pañcasmahā-śabda, (1). PAÑCAMAHĀŚABDA—(1) The five types of musical instruments which were used to greet some higher officials indicating their higher status. The five musical instruments were Śṛiṅga or trumpet, ṭammata or tabour, śaṅkha or conchshell used as a horn, bherī or kettledrum and jayaghaṇṭā or gong. K. B. Pathak, Indian Antiquary, Vol. XII, p. 95 f. This meaning of the term was followed in the South India. D. C. Sircar, Indian Epigraphical Glossary, p. 230. In this sense the term Pañcamāhavādya was also used. (2) =The five official designations, beginning with the word mahā, which could be applied simultaneously to an officer indicating his higher status. The five designations might have been some of the titles like, Mahāsāmanta, Mahāpratīhāra, Mahādaṇḍanāyaka, Mahāmantrī, Mahādoḥsādhanika, etc. P. N. Bhattacharya, Kāmarupaśāsanāvalī, p. 42. This meaning of the term was followed in the Northern India. D. C. Sircar, loc. cit. PAŅA--(1) A coin of silver or copper. Basham, The Wonder that was India, p. 102. Kauṭilya in AŚ V. 3 gives a long list of officials who are to be paid various salaries in Paṇas, fixed by him. (2) In AŚ II. 12 it is instructed that the Paṇa is to be made mainly with silver with one-fourth quantity of copper and one-sixth part of anyone of a few other metals, viz. Tīkṣṇa, Trapu, Sīsā and Añjana. Cf. lakṣaṇādhyakṣaḥ caturbhāgatāmraṁ rupyarupaṁ tīkṣṇatrapu-sīsā-njanā-nāmanyatama-māṣa-vijyauktaṁ kārayet. paṇam ardhapaṇaṁ padam aṣṭabhāgam iti (AŚ II. 12). Cf. also Shamasastry, AŚ. Trans., p. 86, PAṆYĀDHYAKṢA--Superintendent of markets. He was required to organise the sale of government products (i.e., the products of the public sector) and to organise the import of goods needed for the locality. The details of his duties are given in AŚ II. 16. PATTANA--A port or a seaside town. (AŚ II. 28). PATTI--(1) A foot soldier. (2) One of the four constituents of the Caturaṅgabala (i.e., the four-fold army). (3) In the above two senses same as Padāti. (4) Patti also means the smallest division of an army consisting of one chariot, one elephant, three horse-men and five foot-soldiers. See, P. C. Chakravarti, The Art of War in Ancient India, pp. 83 f. The implication of this term, as a small division of army, varies from authority to authority. In Mahābhārata, Udyogaparva 154, 28, it is said that 'a Patti has five times fifty men'. According to one Nītiprakāśaka of Vaiśampāyana, the Patti has the smallest division of army and consists of one chariot, ten elephants, one thousand horses, and one lac of footsoldiers. Cf. ekebhaikarathā tryaśvā pattiḥ pañcapadātikā (Amarakośa, Ksatriyavarga). Also cf. Mahābhārata, Adiparva, 2, 19. PATTIVYŪHA--A battle-order (Vyūha) made of foot-soldiers (Patti). PATTYADHYAKṢA--Superintendent of foot-soldiers. He was to arrange for the training of all the varieties of foot-soldiers. (AŚ II. 33). PADĀTI--(1) Foot-soldier. (2) = Patti. PADIKA--A military officer who is at the head of ten chariots and ten elephants. Cf. aṅgadaśakasyaikaḥ patiḥ padikaḥ (AŚ X. VI). Though there are four Aṅgas included in the term Caturaṅga, here the word refers to chariots and elephants alone. (AŚ Basak, II. p. 260). What should be the number of horses and footmen corresponding to the number of chariots and elephants, to be under a Padika is told in AŚ X. 5. PARASPAROPAKĀRASANDARŚANAM--One of the five varieties of Sāma (conciliation). It is an act of conciliation based on a reference to the mutual good rendered to each other of the parties concerned. Kauṭilya describes it as anyonyopakārasaṁkīrtana (AŚ II 10). PARIMITĀRTHA-DŪTA—A second class Dūta, who lacks in one-fourth of the ideal qualities of an Amātya. Cf. pādaguṇahīṇaḥ parimitārthaḥ (AŚ I. 16). PARIHĀRA—Exemption from paying tax (AŚ III. 9). PARYUPĀSANA--The act of surrounding the fort of the enemy. (AŚ XIII. 4). PAŚCĀTKOPA--Antagonism fanned up behind a King who is out in an expedition. Such an antagonism is fanned up by already disaffected persons, enemies and forest rulers. Cf. alpaṁ paścātkopaṁ prayātasya dūṣyāmitrātavikā hi sarvataḥ samedhayanti. (AŚ IX. 3). PĀRAMEṢṬHYA--A type of monarchy. This term occurs severally in the Aitareya Brāhmaņa (VIII. 14 to VIII. 19) in the context of the Indramahābhiseka. The term is often followed by the term Prājāpatya. From Sāyaṇa's Com. this term may be taken to mean the attainment of the Prajapatiloka after a glorious tenor of Kingship on earth. In Aitareya Brāhmaṇa, VIII. 14 we have the expression Pārameṣṭhyaṁ Rājyam, and there also, the term most probably means a Kingship (i.e., rājya or the status of a King) like that of the Parameṣṭhī, who is described to be Prājāpatya (or Prājāpatisambandhī), as explained by Sāyaṇa. PĀRĀŚAVA--(1) Son of a Brāhmaṇa from a Śūdra woman. (2) =Niṣāda. (AŚ III. 6, III. 7, etc.) PARVATA DURGA—(1) Hill Fort (vide AŚ II. 3). (2) =Giri-Durga of Mbh. Śānti 86.5 and Manu Saṁ. VII. 70 etc. PĀRṢNIGRĀHA--(1) One of the Kings forming the circle of allies and enemies in the Maṇḍala Theory. (2) An enemy in the rear. When the Aggressor (Vijīgiṣu), the central figure in the Maṇḍala (q.v.) starts in a military expedition, this king, with his territory lying immediately adjacent to that of the Aggressor, attacks the latter from behind. (AŚ VI. 2). Cf. Vijīgiṣorariṁ prati niryātasya yaḥ pṛṣṭhavartī nṛpati deśākramaṇā-dyācarati sa pārṣṇigrāhaḥ. (Kulluka's com. on Manu Saṁ. VII. 207). PĀRṢṆIGRĀHĀSĀRA--(1) One the Kings forming the circle of allies and enemies according to the Maṇḍala Theory. (2) This King stands fourth to the Aggressor, Vijīgiṣu (q.v.), the central figure in the circle, from behind. (3) This King is separated from the Pārṣṇigrāha (q.v.) by the Ākranda (q.v.) and he plays the role of an ally to the Pārṣṇigrāha and of an enemy to the Vijīgiṣu (AŚ VI. 2). PALĀGALA--(1) One of the eleven Ratnins (q.v.) (2) As such the term means either 'the royal courier' or the King's bosom companion corresponding to the Vidūṣaka (the royal jester) of later times. Jayaswal, Hindu Polity, p. 196. "His uniform was a red turban and leather quivers", says Jayaswal. From this the meaning as "royal courier" seems to be more reasonable. Altekar, SGAI, p. 162. PĀṢAṆDA---(1) The followers of the sects and religions other than the orthodox Hindu religion. (AŚ III. 16). Cf. Manu Saṁ, IX. 225. (2) =Pakhaṇḍa (cf. Malatīmādhava, V. 24). PĪḌANĪYA--One of the four varieties of enemy, the other three varieties being Yātavya, Ucchedanīya and Karśanīya. Contrary to the conditions under which an enemy is reckoned as Ucchedanīya, if the enemy is endowed with shelter (i.e., a fort and an ally) and stronger shelter, he is to be reckoned as Pīḍanīya, i.e., fit to be troubled by reducing his arms. Cf. viparyaye pīdanīyaḥ karśanīyo vā. (AŚ VI. 2). PUTRIKĀPUTRA—(1) A daughter's son, who by agreement becomes the son of the father, who is otherwise son-less. (Manu Saṁ. IX. 127). (2) Kauṭilya considers a Putrikāputra to be as good as an Aurasaputra. Cf. tena tulyaḥ putrikāputraḥ (AŚ III. 7). (3) Also called Putrikāsuta. PURAPĀLA--(1) A city governor. He was also responsible for the cleanliness of the streets and the prevention of fire and for civic measures against such disasters as famine, flood and plague. One such governor was Cakrapalita, during the reign of Skanda Gupta in C. 455 A.D. Basham, The Wonder that was India, p. 104. Cf. Junagarh Rock Inscription of Skandagupta, line 27. (2) Same as Nāgaraka or Nāgarika. PUSTA--A Record book or account book. Cf. AŚ II. 7. PUROHITA--(1) The Royal Chaplain. (2) In Vedic age the Purohita was one of the eleven Ratnins (Vide, Śatapatha-Brāhmaṇa, V. 3.1). (3) Yājñavalkya Smṛti (I. 312) suggests that the King should consult privately with the Purohita before coming to a final decision on important matters. Cf. "taiḥ sārdhaṁ cintayed rājyaṁ vipreṇātha tatah svayam" (Yājñavalkya, I. 312), where Vipreṇa-brāhmaṇena=purohitena, according to the Miṭākṣarā Com. The qualities of a Purohita are given in the following two verses of the Yājñavalkya Samṛti. (4) According to Ápastamba Dharma Sūtra (II.5. 10. 13-14) the Purohita was expected to be well versed in both sacred law and politics. He was to judge cases where some Prāyaścitta was involved as the punishment or where some brahmin stood as the accused. (5) Kauṭilya maintains a difference between Mantrī and Purohita as indicated by the title of the Chapter AŚ I. 9 (i.e., Mantri-purohitotpatti). According to Kauṭilya, the Purohita should be learned in Vedas and Vedāṅgas, astrology and politics and he should be capable of averting the (national or political) calamities caused by human or heavenly agencies. purohitam....saḍaṅge, vede, daive nimitte, daṇḍanītyāṁ ca abhivinītaṁ āpadāṁ daivamānuṣīṇām ātharvabhirupāyaiś ca pratikartāraṁ kurvīta (AŚ I. 9). (6) According to Śukranītisāra, (II. 80) the Purohita should be well versed in ethics and the science of weapons and army arrangements. nitiśāstrāstravyūhādikuśalastupurohitaḥ. (7) According to a view, recorded by Śukra, the Purohita is the Minister of Religion in a council of ten Ministers. Vide, K. P. Jayaswal, Hindu Polity, p. 282. (8) In AŚ I. 12, Kauṭilya mentions (Purohita) in the second place in a list of 18 Mahāmātras (or Tīrthas). (9) Purodhā is another term for Purohita. purodhāstu purohitaḥ (Amara Kṣatri-ya varga). (10) According to Mbh. Santi. 73.1, the Purohita should be very learned and the king should consult him in matters relating to Dharma and Artha. rājnā purohitaḥ kāryo bhaved vidvān bahuśrutah ubhau samikṣya dharmārthāvaprameyā-vanantaram (Mbh. Śānti. 73.1). PŪRVA-SĀHASA-DAṆḌA--(1) A fine ranging between fortyeight and nintysix Paṇas (AŚ III. 18). aṣṭacatvārimśatpaṇāvaraṁ sanna-vatiparaḥ pūrvasāhasadeṇḍah. This fine is referred to also as PrathamaSāhasa-Daṇḍa in other literature. (2) Manu calls it Prathama-Sāhasa and fixes the penalty at 250 Paṇas. Manu Saṁ. VIII. 138. PAUTAVĀDHYAKṢA--The Controller of weights and measures. (AŚ II. 19). This officer was required to supervise the making of the measuring instruments (Pautava) and to ensure the preciseness of the instruments. PAUNARBHAVA--(1) The son of a woman from her first husband, if already born in time of her marriage with another, becomes a Paunarbhava son to the second husband. Cf. punarbhūtāyāḥ paunarbhava (AŚ III. 7). Cf. also Manu Saṁ, III. 155. (2) In Manu Saṁ, IX. 176 the second husband of a woman is called Paunarbhava. PAURA(S)--The citizens belonging to the cities and presumably to the enlightened society, as opposed to Jānapadas, the rural folk. Vide, Satkari Mookerjee, 'Political Wisdom of Ancient India,' Journal of the Bihar Research Society, XXXXV. parts 1-IV. December, 1959. PAURAVYĀVAHĀRIKA—A judge appointed to hear cases in the cities. His salary is fixed at 12000 Paṇas annually. (AŚ V. 3). PRAKĀŚA YUDDHA--An open fight between two parties in an appointed place and time. Cf. prakāśayuddhaṁ nirdiṣṭo deśekāle ca vibhramaḥ (AŚ VII. 6 verse 8). PRAKṚTI--(1) The term is often used in plural as PRAKṚTAYAH. This term has various meanings as follows. (2) Subjects (of a king) as in Śakuntalā 7.35. pravartātaṁ prākrtihitāya pārthivaḥ (3) King's ministers or counsellors as in Raghuvaṁśa 12. 12 (cf. Apte, p. 351). athānāthāh prakṛtayo mātṛbandhunivaśinam maulairānāy- ayāmāsurbharataṁ stambhitāśrubhih. (4) The Ksatriya community as in Ep. Ind. Vol. IX (cf. Glossary, p. 255). (5) Seven chief officials of the King according to Nilakantha's commentary on Mahābhārata, Sabhaparvan, 5-23. kaccit prakṛtayaḥ sapta na luptā bharatarṣabha āḍhyāstathā vyasaninaḥ svānuraktaśca sarvaśaḥ. The officials are, Durgādhyakṣa (commandant of the citadel), Bālādhyakṣa (Chief of the army staff), Dharmādhyakṣa (Chief of the departments of charity and justice), Camūpati (Commander of the army in the field), Purodhā (the Chaplain), Vaidya (Physician) and the Daivajña (Astrologer). ....tatra svamirupa prakṛtiḥ saptavidhā durgādhyakṣo balādhyakṣo dharmādhyakṣaśca bhupati purodhā vaidyadaivajñau sapta prakṛtayaḥ smṛtā iti proktāh. (6) Ministers (Amātyas) and citizens (pauras) according to Kātyāyana, quoted by Kṣīrasvāmin in his commentary of Amarakośa. amātyaścāpi paurāśca sadbhih prakṛtayaḥ smṛtāḥ. (7) The seven elements of the state and the associations (śreṇayaḥ) of the citizens (pauras), according to Amarakośa, Kṣatriyavarga. rājyāngāni prakṛtayaḥ paurāṇāṁ śreṇayopi ca. See also Saptānga and Sapta-prakṛtayaḥ. (See Sapta-Prakṛtayaḥ and Saptāṅga). (8) K.P. Jayaswal, with reference to Śukranītisāra, II. 3, observes" .... Prakṛtis must sabhyādhikāri-prakṛtī-sabhāsatasmate sthitah sarvadā syān- nroah prājñaḥ svamate na kadācana necessarily signify the People or Subjects meaning thereby their representatives-the chiefs of the Paura and Janapada". Hindu Polity, p. 288. (9) The term continues to be in vogue till a much later time. In the Borgaon C.P. Grant of king Ratnapāla of Kāmarūpa (11th century A.D.) it is observed that when Sri Tyagasimha, the twenty-first king of the family of Salastambha expired without an heir, his prakṛtis (prakṛtayaḥ) chose Brahmapala of the family of Naraka to be the king. P. C. Chaudhury takes the term prakṛtayaḥ in the sense of 'important officials'. History of Civilization of Assam, p. 227. M. M. Sharma translates the term as 'subjects', and suggests that it is obvious that the will of the subjects must have been translated into action by the 'top officials' or the 'council of ministers' as 'their representatives'. Inscriptions of Ancient Assam, Introduction, p. XX. 1., (MS seen through courtesy). (10) Like Amara calling the seven elements of State Prakṛti, Kauṭilya applies the term to the seven mutually beneficial elements of the State, viz. Svāmī (the King), Amātya (Ministers), Janapada (the territory along with the people), Durga (the fort), Kośa (the exchequer), Daṇḍa (the military power or force) and Mitra (allies). Cf. svāmyamātyajanapadadurgakośa-daṇḍamitrāṇi prakṛtayaḥ (AŚ VI. 1). PRAKṚTIKOPA--Antagonism against the King on the part of the Prakṛtis. Here, the term Prakṛti presumably refers to the ministers (Amātyas), the people of the countryside (Janapada) and the allies (Mitra), from amongst the seven Prakṛtis, known also as the Saptāṅga. For the use of the term see AŚ V. 6 and IX. 3 (see also Prakṛti). PRAKṚTI-SAṀKṢEPA--The primary elements of the state. Shamasastry. AŚ Trans. p. 352. Rājā (the King) and Rājya (the Kingdom) are said to be the two primary elements of the state. Cf. rājā rājyam iti prakṛtisaṁkṣepah (AŚ VIII. 2). PRAKṚTYAMITRA—(1) One of the three varieties of enemy (Amitra=Śatru=Ari). (2) =Natural enemy. The immediate neighbouring States (bhūmyyanantara) in the rear and in the front of the Vijīgiṣu are natural enemies (see Ari). PRAJÑĀ GUṆAS--A King's qualities of wisdom. Kauṭilya names them as Śuśrūṣā (desire to listen to sāstras), Sravana (understanding of the words), Grahana (understanding of the meanings), Dhāraṇa (retention of what is learnt), Vijñāna (conception of particular subjects), Uha (argument for a better understanding of any subject), Apoha (rejection of the faulty interpretation), Tattvābhiniveśa (absorption in the essential meaning). (AŚ VI. 1). PRATIKROŚA--Higher bidding in an auction. (AŚ III. 8). PRATIKROṢṬĀ--The higher bidder in an auction (AŚ III. 8). PRATIBHŪ—A bail or surety or guarantee (AŚ III. 11., Yājñavalkya II. 10, II. 54). PRADEṢṬĀ--One of the 18 Mahāmātras or Tīrthas. (AS' I. 12). This officer is to act as a judge in criminal cases. (AŚ II. 35 and IV. 1 etc.) PRABHĀVA ŚAKTI—A King's power arising out of material wealth and political supremacy. It is also called prabhuśakti. See Śakti. PRABHUŚAKTI--Same as Prabhāvaśakti (q.v.) PRAŚĀSTĀ--Nom. singular form of Praśāstṛ. The term occurs in the list of 18 Mahāmātras or Tīrthas. (AŚ I. 12). The term corresponding to it in the Rāmāyaṇa list of Tīrthas is Bandhanāgāradhikṛta. Hence, this term is presumed to mean an officer in charge of the jails. PRĀKĀMYA--Authority over (or ownership of) settle and movable properties. (AŚ III. 10). PRĀḌVIVĀKA--(1) The chief judge and the King's chief legal adviser. Basham, The Wonder that was India, p. 100 and P. 116. (2) The term occurs in the early Smṛti works of Gautama, Baudhayana, Āpastamba etc. Ghoshal, HIPI, p. 56. (3) Nīlakaṇṭha, commenting on Māhabhārata, Śānti Parva, 121.46, gives a very interesting etymology, that, prāṭ means one who questions, and vivāka means one who understands the attitude of both the parties involved in a litigation. bhikṣukaḥ prāḍvivākaś ca mauhūrtā daivacintakāḥ.... ,pṛcchatīti prāṭ. sa cāsau vivākaśca, vivad amānayor dvayoḥ pravṛttinimittā-vettā. Cf. also Mitākṣārā on Yājñavalkya, II. 3. PRĀTIBHĀVYA--The act of becoming a bail or surety (AŚ III. 11). Cf. asāraṁ bālaprātibhāvyam (A child's becoming the bail will be invalid) (AŚ III. 11). PRĀDEŚIKA—The governor of a province of the Mauryan administration. (Asoka's Third Rock Edict, Line 2). PRĀPTAPAÑCAMAHĀŚABDA--(1) A title or epithet applied to a royal officer of a comparatively higher status. (Cf. Nidhanpur C.P. Grant of Bhāskara varma, line 133. Ed. Ind. Vol. XII). (2) =Samadhigata-pañca-mahāśabda. D. C. Sircar, Indian Epigraphical Glossary, p. 256. (3) The title indicates that the officer (or even feudatory rulers) bearing this epithet were entitled to be honoured by Pañcamahāśabda (i.e. five kinds of musical instruments), or to (4) The privilege of using five official titles beginning with the word mahā. See, Pañcamahāśabda. PRĀPTAVYAVAHĀRA--One who has become a major to take part in legal suits or to claim a division of the paternal property and for other similar purposes. A male becomes a major after attaining 16 years and a female becomes a major after attaining 12 years (see AŚ III. 5 etc.). BANDHAKA--(1) Pledge or mortgage (Yājñāvalkya II. 3.37). (2) Same as Ādhi. See Medhātithi on Manu Saṁ. VIII. 149. BANDHANĀGĀRA--Jail. BALI--(1) Originally the term meant only a voluntary tribute to gods, as we have it frequently in the Vedic literature. (cf. Ṛgveda, V. 1. 10) (2) Later on it came to mean a tax or impost in the Vedic period itself. The Vaiśyas, engaged in various productive professions and trades, were the best tax-payers and hence they were described as 'payer of tax to others'. A. S. Altekar SGAI, p. 262. (3) In the Jātaka stories we have the terms Balisādhaka and Balipātigāhakas in the sense of tax-collectors, where the word bali means tax in a general way. (4) In AŚ II. 15 Kauṭilya uses the term in the sense of an additional imposition (levied in addition to the usual land-tax, etc.). A. S. Altekar SGAI, p. 263. (5) Kālidāsa, in Raghuvaṁśa I. 18 uses the term in the sense of a general tax. (6) In Manu Saṁ. VIII. 80 the term, as interpreted by Medhātithi, seems to be used in the sense of a tax in the form of one-sixth of the produce. In this sense we generally anticipate the term Kara. But in Manu Saṁ VIII. 307 the three terms Bali, Kara and Śulka are used side by side. Here also Medhātithi explains Bali as 'one-sixth of paddy etc.' (i.e. agricultural product), Kara as 'part of other commodities received by the King' and Śulka as 'customs duty on merchandise'. balirdhānyādeḥ, ṣaṣṭho bhāgaḥ. karo dravyādānam. śulkaṁ vanikprāpyabhāgah. (7) In Manu Saṁ VIII. 308, the term Bali seems to be used explicitly in the sense of 'one-sixth' (of the agricultural product). baliṣaḍbhāgahāriṇam. (8) In the Junagarh Inscription of Rudradāman I, also, we have side by side three similar terms viz. Bali, Śulka, and Bhāga, where according to A. S. Altekar the meanings are extra imposition, customs and land tax respectively. yathāvatprāptai-rbaliśulkabhāgaih. (D. C. Sircar, Select Inscriptions, Vol. I, p. 179). A. S. Altekar, SGAI, p. 337. But D. C. Sircar takes the terms to mean 'tax (=Kara)', 'tolls and duties' and 'King's grain share' respectively. D. C. Sircar, Select Inscriptions, Vol. I, p. 179, foot note No. 3. (9) According to D. C. Sircar the term Bali is often identical with Kara. But Kauṭilya gives both the terms Bali and Kara side by side, in AŚ II. 15. (10) In the Rummindei Pillar Inscription of Aśoka, we have the terms Bali and Bhāga side by side. luṁṁini gāme ubalike kaṭe aṭhabhāgiye ca (Skt=lumbinīgrāmaḥ udbalikaḥ kṛtaḥ aṣṭabhāgikaḥ ca). It is stated there that Aś'oka made the village of Lumbini 'free from Bali' (udbalikaḥ) and reduced the land-tax to only one-eighth of the produce instead of the usual one-sixth, (cf. āṣṭa-bhāgikaḥ). D. C. Sircar observes that according to some scholars Bali here means. 'a cess collected at holy places'. But it appears to us that, as in AŚ here also Bali means 'additional imposition' since the spirit of the edict is that the birth place of the Buddha is not only rendered free from the 'additional imposition' but also given more relief by reducing the land tax from 16 1/3% to 12 1/2%. (11) In the face of these divergent interpretations it will possibly be safer to presume that the terms Kara, Bhāga and Bali were often used indiscriminately. That the connotation of these names of various taxes varied from place to place is indicated by Medhātithi also. baliprabhaṛtīni rājagrāhyakara-nāmāni deśabheda sūpamāṇavakavatprasiddhāni. (Under Manu Saṁ. VIII. 307). BĀHYAKOPA--Antagonism towards the King on the part of any one of the Rāsṭramukhyas (prominent personalities of the state or the countryside), the Antapālas, the Āṭavikas (forest rulers) and the Daṇḍopanatas (the vanquished rulers) (AS' IX. 3). rāṣṭramukhyāntapālāṭavikadaṇḍopanatānā manyatamakopo bāhyakopaḥ BRAHMADEYĀ--(1) A free gift of land to a brāhmaṇa. Such a land is to be free from all types of taxes and should be enjoyable to the successive generations of the donee. (AŚ III.1). brahmadeyānyadaṇḍ akarāṇyabhirupadāyakāni (AŚ III. 1). (2) A woman married according to the Brahma form of marriage. (Manu Saṁ. III. 185). Cf. S. C. Banerji, A Glossary of Smṛti Literature, p. 83. BRAHMADEYIKĀ--An enjoyer or owner of a Brahmadeyā (i.e. a tax-free land donated to a brāhmaṇa). (AŚ III. 10). BHARMAṆYĀ--Maintenance cost given to woman by her husband. (AŚ III. 3). BHĀGA--(1) A tax in the form of a share of the agricultural produce or any merchandise. (2) Kauṭilya mentions it as one of the Āyamukhas, i.e. as a source of royal income (AŚ II. 6). (3) This term is often suffixed to other words, e.g. Lavaṇa bhāga (King's share of the salt produce). (4) A business partner's share as presumably in AŚ II. 35. (5) In certain places identified with Bali and in others with Kara and in yet other places with both. (See Bali and Kara). (6) A subdivision of a district or a territory. (D. C. Sircar, Indian Epigraphy, VIII. 5). (7) Often used with a numerical expression to indicate the proportion of the produce to be realised as tax. Cf. dhānyānām aṣṭamo bhāgaḥ ṣaṣṭho dvādaśa eva vā (Manu Saṁ. VII. 130).. Cf. dhānya saḍbhāgaṁ paṇya daśabhāgaṁ hiraṇyaṁ cāsya bhāgadheyaṁ prakalpayāmāsuḥ (AŚ. I. 13). (8) = A land tax often mentioned as Bhāgakara. BHĀGADHUK--(1)= Bhāgadugha, one of the Ratnīs (q.v.) being the officer in charge of revenue collection. (2) Samāhartā of Arthaśāstra (I. 6). BHŪMICCHIDRANYĀYA—(1) =Bhumicchidrapidhāna-nyāya and Bhūmicchidra-vidhāna-nyāya. (2) Literally "The maxim of the fallow land'. Hence the term means 'the principle of the rentfree enjoyment of land by one who brings it under cultivation for the first time. D. C. Sircar, Indian Epigraphical Glossary, p. 58. (3) When a donated land was exempted from any tax it became a convention to state the land to have been given according to the 'maxim of the fallow land' even where the land was not necessarily a fallow land nor cultivated for the first time. Cf. akincitpragṛhyatayā bhumicchidranyāyena...pratipādi. tam (Nidhanpur C. P. Grant of Bhāskaravarman. lines 43-54. Vide Kāmarupaś' āsanāvalī, p. 17). BHŪMICCHIDRA VIDHĀNA--(1) Yādavaprakāś'ās Vaijayantī gives the meaning of bhūmicchidra as a 'land unfit for cultivation'. bhumicchidraṁ kṛṣyayogyā. Kautilya begins his chapter on Bhumicchidravidhāna (AŚ II. 2) with the words: (akrsyayam bhumau paś'ubhyo vivitāni prayacchet' (The King should make provision for grazing grounds for the animals in the uncultivable lands). (2) The whole term means 'arrangement regarding land unfit for cultivation'. Kauṭilya discusses these arrangements in AŚ II. 2. (3) Cf. Bhūmicchidranyāya. BHŪMI-SANDHI--Treaty for the gain of land (bhūmi). When in a treaty both parties agree to stop hostility with a view to gaining some land for both of them, it is called a Bhūmisandhi. Cf. "tvaṁ cāhaṁ ca bhūmiṁ labhāvahe" iti bhūmisandhiḥ (AŚ VII. 10). BHṚTAKA—A servant who receives regular emoluments. It seems that while the Karmakara (q.v.) belongs to a family, the Bhṛtaka maintains his independence and works for wages, cf. the terms grāmabhṛtaka and Bhṛtakabala. BHṚTA-BALA--The mercenary troops. See Ṣaḍaṅga bala. BHEDA--(1) Sowing of dissensions in the enemy's side. (2) It is one of the four Upāyas or means of success against the enemy. (3) Kauṭilya describes it to be mainly of two types, viz. Ṣaṅkājananam (creation of confusion in the minds of the followers of the enemy), and Nirbhartasana (intimidation of the followers of the enemy). Cf. śaṁkājananam nirbhartsanaṁ ca bhedaḥ (AŚ II. 10). BHOGAKARA--(1) The periodical supplies of agricultural produce made to the King for his consumption. (2) The term occurs side by side with Bhāga. (See Hiraṇya). Hence it is also suggested that Bhāga-bhogakara may be a single term meaning the King's share of agricultural produce. BHOJA--(1) The heads of a Bhaujya (q.v.) type of republic noticed in the Aitareya Brāhmaṇa VIII. 14. Cf daksiṇasyāṁ diśi ye ke ca sātvatāṁ rājāno bhaujyāyaiva tebhiṣicyante bhojetyenānabhiṣiktānācakṣata. See Jayaswal, Hindu Polity, p. 75 ff. But Jayaswal's interpretation of the term (2) The term also occurs in the Thirteenth Rock Edict of Aśoka (Shahbazgarhi version), line 10. Cf. 'bhoja-pitinikeṣu'...., Sircar, Select Inscriptions, p. 36. (3) =Bhojaka, a term which occurs also in the Hāthigumpha Inscription of Khāravela, line 6. Cf. sava raṭhika-bhojake pade baṁdāpayati. D. C. Sircar takes the meaning of this term to be "Jāgirdār". Sircar, Select Inscriptions, p. 220. n. 1. Altekar also takes the meaning of Bhoja as 'feudal lord' (vide SGAI, p. 37). BHAUJYA--(1) As explained by Jayaswal, it is a peculiar type of government headed by a number of Kings (rājānaḥ), who after being anointed used to be called Bhojas, as noticed in the Aitareya Brāhmaṇa, VIII. 14. Jayaswal, Hindu Polity, p. 75. But such a meaning is not convincing. See note under Svārājya, (2) Sāyaṇa, while commenting on Aitareya Brāhmaṇa VIII. 14 ff., gives the meaning as 'enjoyment and prosperity'. A. B. Keith, in the same contexts, renders the term as 'self-rule'. See Basu, IAB, p. 87. (3) The king enjoying the status of Bhaujya used to be called a Bhoja. The term Bhoja seems to have been used to imply a higher degree of supremacy of the king to whom it was applied as an epithet. Cf. rājā bhojo virāṭ samrāṭ kṣatriyo bhūpatir nṛpaḥ ya ebhiḥ stūyate śabdaiḥ kastaṁ nārcitumarhati. (Mahābhārata, Śānti Parva, 68. 54). Bhaujya as a republic is not convincing (See notes under Svārājya). Hence, the term Bhaujya should better be rendered as 'self-rule' and Bhoja as an 'independent ruler'. MAṆḌALA--(1) A circular array of troops. (Mbh. Bhīṣma 81. 12). (2) It is one of the four main varieties of battle orders (Vyūhas) the others being Daṇḍa, Bhoga and Asaṁhata. Cf. P. C. Chakravarti: The Art of War in Ancient India, pp. 113-115. (3) Maṇḍala is defined by Kauṭilya to be a battle order in which the wings (Pakṣa), flanks (Kakṣa) and the centre (Uras) stand in close proximity to one another without leaving any gap between them. pakṣakaksorasyānām ekībhāve maṇḍalah (AŚ X 6) (4) Maṇḍala- Vyūha has two sub-varieties viz. Sarvatobhadra and Durjaya (AŚ X. 6). (5) A district or a province. The term is often mentioned in epigraphical records with varying connotations. Sometimes Maṇḍala is smaller than Viṣaya, sometimes bigger than Viṣaya and sometimes identical with Viṣaya. D. C. Sircar, Indian Epigraphical Glossary, p. 194 f. (6) The circle of king's near and distant neighbours. This circle consists of twelve kings as follows:There is the aggressor (Vijīgiṣu) in the centre. In front of him there are five kings with their territories gradually receding in distance. They are named Ari (immediately adjacent to the central king), Mitra (adjacent to Ari), Arimitra (adjacent to Mitra), Mitrāmitra (adjacent to Arimitra), and Arimitrāmitra (adjacent to mitrāmitra). Behind the central king there are four kings with their respective territories gradually receding from centre. These kings are named Pārṣṇigrāha (adjacent to the central King), Ākranda (adjacent to the Pārṣṇigrāha), Pārṣṇigrāhāsāra (adjacent to Ākranda) and Ākrandāsara (adjacent to the Pārṣṇigrāhāsāra). Lying to the right or left of the central king are two other kings viz. Madhyama (intermediate) and Udāsīna (indifferent). These twelve kings including the central king called a Vijīgiṣu form the Maṇḍala (vide AŚ VI. 2). (7) Yājñavalkya conceives the Maṇḍala in the form of a lotus, where the circle is formed by Ari (enemy), Mitra (ally) and Udāsīna (indifferent) remaining in gradually receding positions in the front, in the rear, to the right and to the left. Thus there are thirteen kings in the circle, including the Vijīgiṣu, the central figure ( Yājñavalkya Smṛti I. 345). Pārṣṇigrāha, Ākrandāsāra, etc. recognised by others (e.g. Kauṭilya) may be included in one of the several Aris, Mitras and Udāsīnas, respectively. MADHYAMA--One of the kings of the circle of allied and enemy kings enumerated in the Maṇḍala theory. The territory of the Madhyama stands either to the right or to the left of the central figure of the circle, viz. the Aggressor (Vijīgiṣu). 4. Cf. evaṁ purataḥ pṛṣṭhataḥ pārśvatas'ca trayastraya ātmā caika iti trayodaśarājakam idaṁ rājamaṇḍalaṁ padmākāraṁ-pārṣṇigrāhākrandāsāradayastyari-mitrodāsīneṣvevāntarbhavanti .....(Mitākaṣrā on Yājñavalkya Smṛti, I. 345). He is an intermediate king capable of doing favour to the Aggressor and his enemy when they are in a treaty or even when they are involved in a conflict or to chastise both the. Aggressor and his enemy when they are involved in a conflict. Cf. arivijīgiṣorbhūmyantaraḥ saṁhatāsaṁhatayor anugrahe samartho nigrahe cāsaṁhatayor madhyamaḥ (AŚ VI. 2). MADHYAMA-SĀHASA-DAṆḌA--(1) A fine ranging between two hundred and five hundred Paṇas (AŚ III. 18). dviśatāvaraḥ pancaśatāparaḥ madhyamassāhasadaṇḍaḥ. That the numbers here refer to the quantity of Paṇas, may be gathered from the definition of Purvasāhasa-daṇḍa. (2) Manu calls it Madhyama Sāhasa and fixes the penalty at 500 Paṇas, (Manu Saṁ VIII. 138). MANUṢYA DURGA—(1) A men fort. (vide Mbh. Śānti 86.5). (2) =Nṛ Durga of Manu Saṁ, VII. 70. (3) Medhātithi explains it to be a fort full of warriors belonging to all branches of the army. MANTRA--(1) Counsel. (2) Deliberation. (3) Consultation. (4) Secret plan on Consultation. (5) Procedure and principles of carrying on deliberations and of chalking out secret plans are given in AŚ I. 15. (6) Kauṭilya further observes that means to carry out works, command of plenty of men and wealth, allotment of time and place, remedies against dangers, and final success are the five constituents of every council deliberation' (Mantrā). Cf. AŚ Trans p. 28, and karmāṇām ārabhopāyah puruṣadravyasampat, deśakālavibhāgaḥ. vinipātapratikārah. kāryasiddhiriti pañcāṅgo mantraḥ (AŚ I. 15). This passage of the AŚ is quoted in Hitopadesa, Book IV. MANTRA YUDDHA—(1) Battle of intrigue. (2) Fighting with the enemy through the activities of the secret agents, instead of getting engaged in an open battle. (3) In this type of Yuddha, varieties of Gūḍhapuruṣas are engaged to kill the enemy or to create all sorts of dangers and difficulties for the enemy. (4) Details of Mantra Yuddha are given in AŚ XII. 2. (5) In AŚ VII. 13, Kauṭilya points out the relative superiority of the battle of intrigue (Mantra Yuddha) to armed confrontation (Vyāyāma yuddha). (6) Same as Tūṣṇīm yuddha, mentioned in AŚ VII. 6, Verse 9, and VII. 16. Cf. prakāśa-kūṭa-tusṇiṁyuddha-durgalambho-pāyair amitrapragrahaṇam iti danḍam ācaret (AŚ VII. 16). MANTRA ŚAKTI--The power of a king secured by superior statesmanship and diplomacy and counsel. See Śakti. MANTRI-PARIṢAD--(1) Council of ministers. (2) The number of the ministers constituting the Mantripariṣad is variously given. As given in the Arthaśāstra I. 15, according to the school of Manu the number should be twelve; according to the school of Bṛhaspati sixteen and according to the school of Usana twenty. mantripariṣadaṁ dvādaśāmātyān kurvīteti mānavaḥ ṣodaśeti bārhaspatyāḥ viṁśatim ityauśanasāh. (AŚ. I. 45). (3) Manu in Manu Saṁ. VII. 54, however, gives the number as seven or at best eight, using the term Saciva for Mantrī. Sacivān sapta cāṣṭau vā kurvita suparikṣitān (MS. VII. 54). (4) In Manusaṁhitā VII. 60/61, Manu suggests that the number of ministers may be more than seven or eight, and there should be as many Amātyas as necessary for smoothly carrying on the royal business. Medhātithi points out that Manu Saṁ. VII. 60, where it is advised to appoint more ministers is an exception (Apavāda) to the rule of appointing seven or eight as stated in Manu Saṁ. VII. 54. yaduktam 'sapta cāṣṭau veti' tasyāyam apavādah (Medhātithi under MS. VII. 60). (5) Kautilya's own opinion, given after referring to the views of Manu, Bṛhaspati and Uś'anas, is that the actual number of ministers should depend upon the needs of the situation in the state. "Yathāsāmarthyam" iti Kauṭilyah (AŚ I. 15). (6) While the scope of the Mantripariṣad remains flexible, Kauṭilya takes care to suggest that in actual practice the king should take counsel from only three or at best four Mantrīs. The term Mantripariṣad is clearly used by Kauṭilya (See under No. 1 above). In the term Mantripariṣad, the word Mantri, seems to mean executive heads. mantribhistribhiścaturbhirvā saha mantrayeta (AŚ I. 15) Here the term Mantri seems to mean Counsellors. See under Ātyayika karma. (7) In the third and sixth Rock Edicts of As'oka we find the Prakrit term Parisā (Skt. Pariṣad) in the sense of Mantri-Pariṣad. Parisāpi yute āñapayisati (Third Rock Edict, line 6) Parisāyaṁ=pariṣadi (Sixth Rock Edict, line 7) (Vide D. C. Sircar, Select Inscriptions, Vol. I, pp. 19 and 24). (8) There seems usually to have been a chief counsellor, the Mantrin par excellence, often called "great counsellor" (māhamantrin). A. L. Basham, The Wonder that was India, p. 99. MANTRI-PARIṢAD-ADHYAKṢA--The president of the council of ministers. He is one of the 18 Mahāmātras (q.v.) MANTRĪ—(1) A minister. (2) Strictly speaking a counsellor of the king in policy matters. (3) Amarakośa equates Mantrī to a Dhīsaciva (a minister for counsel) as opposed to a Karmasaciva (a minister for action or execution). mantrī dhīsacivo'mātyo'nye karmasacivā-stataḥ (Amarakośa-Kṣatriyavarga). (4) Mantrī=Dhīsaciva=Matisaciva. (5) The terms Mantrī, Saciva and Amātya are often indiscriminately used. (6) Rāmāyaṇa 1-7-3 refers to Sumantra as an Amātya, 1-7-4/5 name 7 others as Mantrī, while 1-8-4 refers to Sumantra again as a Mantrī. (7) Manusaṁhitā (VIII-54), while suggesting that the council of ministers should have 7 or 8 members uses the term Saciva in the sense of Mantrī. (8) Mahābhārata suggesting the number to be 8 uses the term Mantrī. aṣṭānāṁ mantriṇāṁ madhye mantrāṇi rājopadhārayet (Mbh. XII. 85). (9) Śukranītisāra distinguishes between the terms Saciva, Mantrī and Amātya as follows -sarvadarśī pradhānastu senāvit sacivastathā Mantrī tu nītikuśalaḥ paṇḍito dharmatattvavit deśakālapravijñātā hyamātya iti kathyate (ŚNS II.8486). (10) At least in one place Kauṭilya seems to use the term Mantrī in the sense of an executive officer. Because, he suggests that in an emergent situation the king should immediately call the Mantrīs or Mantripariṣad (See quotation from AŚ I. 15 under Ātyayika Kārya). In the passage referred to, Kauṭilya seems to use the term Mantriṇaḥ in the sense of Counsellors (Matisacivas) and the term Mantrīpariṣad in the sense of 'a council of executive officers." MAHATTARĀDAHIKĀRINS--(1) Adhikārimahattaras. (2) Village elders in office or power, belonging to south India from C. 600 A.D. onwards. Altekar, SGAI, p. 230. MAHĀKṢA PAṬALIKA--(1) Superintendent of legal records. Cf. Altekar, SGAI, p. 199. (See Akṣapaṭala). (2) =Akṣapaṭalika. (3) =Akṣapaṭalādhyakṣa (q.v.). MAHĀMANTRĪ—(1) The king's chief counsellor. (2) The Mantrī par excellence. MAHĀMĀTRA--(1) =Mahāmātya. (2) =Pkt. Mahāmata. (3) Often referred to in plural as in Aśoka's second separate Jaugada Rock Edict, line 1 (....mahāmata), meaning top ranking Executive Officers. The Mahāmātras mentioned in the separate Rock Edicts of Dhauli and Jaugada are supposed to have formed a Council of Governors to carry on the administration of Kalinga. K. P. Jayaswal, Hindu Polity, p. 284. (4) The term often forms the latter part of a larger technical term meaning top ranking officials looking after special branches of administration, e.g., Dharma Mahāmātra (=DhammaMahāmata) in the seventh Pillar Edict (DelhiTopra) of Aśoka and Sramana-Mahāmātra (=Samana Mahamata) in the Nasik Cave Inscription of the time of Krishna. D. C. Sircar, Select Inscriptions, Vol. I, p. 63. D. C. Sircar, Ibid., pp. 189 f. (5) A member of the group of 18 Tīrthas or 18 Mahāmātras (See under TĪRTHA). (6) According to Amarakośa, Mahāmātra is the Mahāmantrī, i.e. Chief Minister. mahāmātraḥ pradhānāni (Amara. Kṣatriya varga). (7) Manu Saṁhitā, IX-259 mentions the term Mahāmātra, where Medhātithi understands the term to mean Mantrī, Purohita, etc. (mantrīpurohitādayaḥ). (8) Apte quotes an old verse according to which the Mahāmātra is called so because of having political wisdom, deeds, ornaments, wealth, honour and dress in higher (mahatī) degree (mātrā) or measure. mantre karmaṇi bhuṣāyāṁ vitte māne paricchade mātrā ca mahatī yeṣāṁ mahāmātrāstu te smṛtāḥ. (9) According to Śukra each minister had two junior ministers attached to his particular department. ekasminnadhikāre tu puruṣaṇāṁ trayaṁ sadā niyuñjīta prājñatamaṁ mukhayam ekaṁ tu teṣu vai (Śukranitisāra II 109). The chief of these three was distinguished by the title Mahāmātra. K. P. Jayaswal, Hindu Polity, p. 305. MAHIṢĪ--(1) The queen. (2) The chief queen. (3) One of the eleven Ratnins (q.v.). MAHĪDURGA--(1) An earth fort (vide Mbh. Śānti 86.5 and Manu Saṁ. VII. 70). (2) Medhātithi describes it to be a fort surrounded on all sides by deep waters. MĀTSYANYĀYA--(1) The maxim of the strong fishes destroying the weak ones in the open sea. In analogy with it, the term in the context of politics means "a state of anarchy". See Jayaswal, Hindu Polity, p. 82 n. In the absence of a king there occurs a state of anarchy (Mātsyanyāya) where the strong men destroy the weak ones with impunity. See AŚ I. 4 for the use of the term and explanation. apraṇīto hi mātsyanyāyam udbhāvayanti valfyān abalaṁhi grasate daṇḍadharābhāve. (2) The term is used in the same sense also in the Rāmāyāṇa and the Mahābhārata. Cf. arājakāḥ prajāḥ sarvā purvaṁ vineśuriti nahśrutam parasparaṁ bhaksayanto matsyā iva jale kṛṣān (Mahābhārata, Sānti Parva, 67.17). nārājake janapade svakaṁ bhavati kasyacit matsyā iva janā nityaṁ bhakṣayanti parasparam (Rāmāyaṇa, Ayodhya Kāṇḍa, 67-31). (3) Manu Saṁhitā VII. 20 contains the idea of a Mātsyanyāya occurring in the absence of Daṇḍa (i.e. king's coercive authority). See Kulluka's commentary on Manu Saṁ. VII. 20 for a reference to the term. (4) Kāmandaka explains it as mutual antagonism of the people of various avocations due to the absence of Daṇḍa. parasparāmiṣatayā jagato bhinnavartamanaḥ daṇḍābhāve paridhvaṁsi mātsyo nyāyaḥ pravartate (Kāmandakiya Nītisāra, II. 40). (5) Col. G.A. Jacob includes it as one of the popular maxims (Nyāya's) in the Laukikanyāyāñjali, Pt. II. (pp. 57 f.) (6) The idea that the Mātsyanyāya occurs primarily in the open sea is contained in the Nidhanpur C.P. Grant of Bhāskaravarman, verse 8. mātsyanyāyāvirahitaḥ prakāśa-ratnaḥ suto dvairathalaghuḥ pañrama iva hi samudraḥ samudravarmāabhavat-tasya (Kāmarūpaśàsanāvali, p. 12). Compare also Khalimpur Plate of Dharmapāla Deva, Verse (Rajbali Pandey, Historical and Literary Inscriptions, p. 225). MĀNĀDHYAKṢA--The Controller of the measurement of area and time (AŚ II. 20). MĀHĀRĀJYA--The term occurs in several prayers and oaths of the vedic literature. For example, in Aitareya Brāhmaṇa 8-37-5 as rendered by A. B. Keith the term means a paramount rule. A. B. Keith, The Ṛgveda-Brāhmaṇas the Atharvaveda (Harvard Oriental Series, XXV). MITRA--(1) An ally. (2) In the context of the Maṇḍala-theory there are two distinct types of allies. (3) If a king belonging to an alternate territory and bearing a kinship with the Vijīgi u, behaves as an ally by nature, he is called a Sahajamitra. Cf. bhūmyekāntaraṁ prakrtimitraṁ mātā-pitṛisambandhaṁ sahajam (AS' VI. 2). (4) If an ally comes to take shelter with the Vijīgi u for the safety of his own wealth and life, he is called a Kṛtrima mitra. Cf. dhanajīvitahetorāśritaṁ kṛtrimamiti (AŚ V.I. 2), From the English translation of Shamasastri and also the Bengali translation of R. G. Basak, Kauțilya appears to recognise only two varieties of Mitra, viz. Sahaja Mitra (natural friend) and Kṛtrima Mitra (acquired friend) But according to the Jayamaṅgalā Com on Kāmandakīyanītīsara, IV. 71, Kauṭilya recognises three varieties, viz. Sahaja-, Pṛakṛta- and Kṛtrima Mitra. As understood by Jayamangalā, one belonging to an alternate territory (bhumyekāntaram) is the Prākṛta-while one bearing a kinship (mātāpitṛsambandham) is the Sahajamitra, (5) Kāmandakīyanītisāra (IV.71) recognises four varieties of Mitra, and they are-a friend by birth, one acquired through connection, one who is a friend on account of the situation of the territory, and one saved from calamity. Cf. aurasaṁ maitrasambaddhaṁ tathā deśakramāgatam rakṣitaṁ vyasanebhyaśca mitraṁ jñeyaṁ caturvidham. In the Hitopadeśa the first half is slightly differently read as follows:-aurasaṁ kṛtasambandhaṁ tathā vaṁśakramāgatam. Accordingly we have a friend by birth, one acquired through connections (other than parental connection) and one descended from the same genealogical stock, while one saved from calamity is the fourth variety as given in the second half. (Vide Hitopadeśa, I, 93). MITRA PRAKṚTI--The allied king whose territory stands separated from the territory of a Vījigiṣu (i.e. the Aggressor, the central figure in the Maṇḍala theory) by the territory of another king, who is usually an enemy. Cf. tathaiva bhumyekāntarā mitraprakṛtiḥ (AŚ VI. 2). MITRA-BALA--Soldiers derived from anally in time of an aggression. MITRA-MITRA--An ally in the circle of the allies and enemies as conceived in the Maṇḍala theory. His territory stands fifth from that of the Vījigiṣu being immediately beyond the territory of the Arimitra. MITRA-SANDHI--"Treaty for the acquisition of an ally". U. N. Ghoshal, HIPI, p. 98, When in a treaty both the parties stop hostility and come to an agreement, aiming at the gain of an ally for both of them, the treaty is called Mitra-Sandhi (AŚ VII. 9). MITRA SAMPAT--The ideal and desirable qualities of an ally which put him to the best advantage of the Vījigiṣu (AŚ VI. 1). MUDṚĀDHYAKṢA—The Superintendent of Passports (AS II. 34). MṚD-DURGA--Earth fort (Vide Mbh. Śānti, MOKṢA--Legal separation of a couple, cf. Paras. paraṁ dveṣān mokṣaḥ (AŚ III. 3). MAULA BALA--The hereditary troops. See Ṣāḍaṅga-bala. YĀTAVYA--One of the four varieties of an enemy, the other three varieties being Ucchedanīya, Pīḍanīya and Karśanīya. The present term implies an enemy, fit to be attacked. It is advised that an enemy who is found to be engrossed in the Vyasanas is to be reckoned as Yātavya. Cf. vyasanī yātavyaḥ. (AŚ VI. 2). YĀNA--(1) Military expedition against the hostile King. (2) It is one of the six modes of foreign policy. (see Sādguṇya). (3) Kauṭilya maintains that such an expedition is made only when there is a concurrence of excessive power, proper time and proper place. Cf. abhyuccayo yānam (AŚ VII. 1). YUKTA--(1) =Pkt. YUTA, as in the Third Book Edict of Aśoka, where it means Administrators of smaller districts or smaller divisions of the State. D. C. Sircar, Select Inscriptions, Vol. I, p. 19. (2) But there also the term may mean "an officer in general". D. C. Sircar, Indian Epigraphical Glossary, p. 386. (3) In AŚ II. 8 Kauṭilya seems to use the term in the sense of authorised and responsible officials. (4) The Yukta of AŚ II.8 seems to be immediately responsible to the higher official as Upa-yukta, mentioned in AŚ II. (5) In the sense of an officer in general the term is often found to be equivalent to the terms, Yuktaka, Āyukta and Āyuktaka. Ibid., p. 387, YUKTAKA--See YUKTA. YUVARĀJA—A crown prince. He is one of the 18 Mahāmātras or Tīrthas (q.v.). Sometimes a Yuvarāja also is required to act as the head of the state. In that case the type of government is called Yauvarājya (q.v.). Cf. yuvarāje vā krameṇa rājyabhāram āropya rājavyasanam, (AŚ V. 6). Here the chief minister is advised to make public the report of the demise of a king only after gradually transferring the regal responsibilities to the Yuvarāja. YOGA--(1) All the foul means applied in politics like the activities of the spies. (AŚ IX. 1). (2) Application of drugs, herbs and illusions (Māyā) etc. for the killing of enemy. Cf. mantra-bhaiṣajyasaṁyuktā yoga-maya-kṛtāśca ye upahanyadamitrāṁsstaissvajanaṁ cābhipālayat (AŚ XIV. 3). YOGA-KṢEMA--(1) Preservation of the old and acquisition of the new (not previously acquired). Cf. Yājñavalkya 1.100 and Mitākṣarā thereon. alabdhalābho yogah labdhaparipālanaṁ kṣemaḥ (Mitākṣarā on Yājñavalkya, I. 100). For the use of this term in this sense vide AŚ I.4, Mahābhārata, Śānti, 348, 72, and Gītā, IX. 22. Cf. "ānvīkṣikī-trayī-vārtānāṁ yogakṣemasādhano daṇḍaḥ". R. Shama Sastry translates it as follows: "That sceptre on which the well-being and progress of the sciences of Ānvīkṣikī, the triple Vedas and Vārtā depend is known as Daṇḍa". 'Well-being and progress' as the meaning of yoga-kṣema seems to be quite reasonable. The explanation of the term given by Mitākṣarā seems to be based on what is given in the AŚ immediately after the above extract: Cf. "tasya nītir daṇḍanītīḥ, alabdhālabhārthā. labdhaparirakṣanī, rakṣitavivardhanī vṛddhasya tīrtheṣu pratipādani ca". All these four aspects may together be conveyed by the expression 'protection and prosperity' or 'security and prosperity'. The word prosperity may imply both gain and growth of a wealth. The last foot of this verse of Gītā (i.e., yogakṣemaṁ vahāmyaham) is adopted as the motto in the emblem of the Life Insurance Corpn. of India. (2) In the context of Politics, it means the 'protection and prosperity' of a state, cf. Bhoja's Campū Rāmāyaṇa I.17 (api dhiṣaṇamanīṣānirmitā nītimārgā-stridasanagara-yoga-kṣema-kṛtye kṣamante). In general it also means the security and prosperity of the people as a whole. Cf. vinayamūlo daṇḍaḥ prāṇabhṛtāṁ yogakṣemāvahaḥ. R. Shamasastry's rendering of prāṇabhṛtaṁ yogakṣemāvahaḥ as 'which alone can procure safety and security of life' is not happy, as safety and security mean almost the same thing : Again we have this very rendering under Kauṭilya's, tena bhṛtā rājānaḥ prajānāṁ yogakṣemāvahāḥ (AŚ I. 13). Translating this passage of Kauṭilya, Jayaswal renders the term as government and well-being', (Hindu Polity, p. 166). Rendering of the word yoga as 'government' seems to be far-fetched. (AŚ I. 5). (3) This term was in use even in the days of the Ṛgveda in the sense of prosperity and well being. Cf. yogakṣemaṁ va ādāyā'haṁ bhūyāsam, etc. (Ṛgveda, X. 166.5). YOGAPURUṢA--A type of secretly engaged agents for supporting some action of the administration from among the public as innocent citizens (vide AŚ. V.6). YOGAPRAYOGA--Engagement of secret agents like a Tīkṣṇa (q.v.) for harming the enemy. YAUVARĀJYA--(1) A State ruled by the Yuvarāja (i.e., the Crown Prince). (2) Such a Yauvarājya is mentioned in the Jaina Ācārāṅgasūtra quoted under Gaṇarājya (q.v.). (3) The term seems to refer to a government like the one over which Khāravela presided for nine years up to his coronation at the age of twenty-four. Cf. "nava vasāni yovaraja (pa) sāsitaṁ", Hāthigumphā Cave Inscription of Khāravela, line 2 (vide D.C. Sircar, Select Inscriptions, p. 214). RAJJUKA--(Pkt-Rājūka and Lājūka. Aśoka's Third Rock Edict. Girnar Version. Line 2. Aśoka's Fourth Pillar Edict. Delhi-Topra version. Line 2.). (1) A district officer under the Mauryan administration, who was responsible for the civil administration of a district. In Aśoka's Rock Edict IV, the Rajjukas are advised in great detail to be kind and judicious to the people and to look after their welfare. From the same Edict, asking them to follow a uniform policy in punishment, we learn that the Rajjukas had judicial powers as well. Cf. viyohāla-samatā ca siya daṇḍa--samata ca (Ibid.-Line 15). The word rajju means a rope and hence these officers presumably were responsible also for revenue settlement and revenue assessment etc. See Altekar, SGAI, pp. 213 f. But the word rajju may not be the land-measuring rope and may be the rope for binding a thief or such criminal and hence the term may mean something like a police officer. Cf. the term Daṇḍapāśika. RATNA--HAVIS--A Vedic ritual forming part of the coronation ceremony and more precisely of the Rājasūya sacrifice. 'In this ceremony the King-designate goes to the house of each of the Ratnins (q.v.) and offers an oblation at his (or her) place in honour of a particular deity. J, R. Basu, IAB, p. 108. This is also an act of honour to the Ratnins who are recognised as King-makers Rājakṛtaḥ. The details of this ceremony are given in the Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa, 5-3-1. RATHAKĀRA--(1) One of the Ratnins (q.v.) named in the Maitrāyaṇī Saṁhitā (i.e., the Maitrāyaṇī edn. of Yajurveda). (2) The plain meaning of the term is 'chariotbuilder'. In order to have special recognition from the King-elect in time of his consecration as a Ratnin, this Rathakāra must have been the chief of the chariot makers, holding a high degree of technological proficiency. RATHA-VYŪHA—A battle-order formed with chariots (AŚ X.5). RATHĀDHYAKṢA--Superintendent of royal chariots. This officer was needed to supervise the making of the various kinds of rathas (chariots) and to take care of the horses attached to the chariots, in the manner of the Aśvādhyakṣa. RATNIN(S)--(1) Singular form in Sanskrit is Ratnī. (2) =The court dignitaries. Basham, The Wonder that was India, p. 42 and p. 560, (3) These court dignitaries or literally "jewel bearers", formed the King's council of high functionaries in the later Vedic period of Indian history. (4) of the ancient texts the Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa, the Taittirīya Saṁhitā (1.8.9.1 etc.) and the Taittirīya Brāhmaṇa (I.7.3.1 etc.) give us slightly varying lists of these Ratnins, and their number is eleven. (5) The council of Ratnins comprised of the King's very near relatives, courtiers and certain palace officials, who were looked on as so important that at the King's consecration (Abhiṣeka) the King elect had to offer oblations (called Ratnahavis) in the place of each one of the Ratnins to ensure their loyalty. In connection with this ritual of offering Ratna-havis the scriptures give the names of the Ratnins as follows : Senāni (the commander-in-chief), Purohita (the royal chaplain), Mahiṣī (the chief queen), Sūta (the court minstrel and chronicler), Grāmaṇī (the most prominent among the village headmen), Kṣattā (the royal Chamberlain), Saṁgrahitā (the treasurer), Bhāgadugha (the collector of revenue), Akṣāvāpa (officer in charge of the royal records and State Account), Govikarta (officer in charge of the royal herd of cattle) Jayaswal, Hindu Polity, p. 194. Altekar (SGAI, p. 162) suggests that the Sūta was probably the commander of the chariot corps of the royal army, who might have also acted as the honorary charioteer to the King. The meaning 'food distributor' given by U. N. Ghoshal (History of the Hindu Public Life, I. p. 109) is doubtful. Vide Altekar, SGAI, p. 162, n. 1). The term Saṁgrahitā corresponds to the term Sannidhātā (q.v.) given by Kauṭilya in AŚ II.5 and the term Bhāgadugha corresponds to the term Samāhartā (q.v.) given by Kauṭilya in AŚ II. 6. Altekar (SGAI, p. 162) gives the meaning as "the King's companion at the game table". Commentators of the Vedic texts have explained the term as "the controller of gambling". But Jayaswal (Hindu Polity, p. 195) gives the meaning as "officer in charge of State Accounts", in the light of the terms Akṣapaṭalā, given in AŚ II. 7. We have also preferred to give the present meaning, taking the term Akṣāvāpa to be analogous to the term Akṣapaṭalādhyakṣa given by Kauṭilya (AŚ II. 7). It is deemed reasonable to presume that when the seventh and the eighth terms of the list of Ratnins correspond to the terms given in the 5th and 6th chapters of Book II of the AŚ respectively, the ninth term should correspond to a term given in the seventh chapter of AŚ II. This meaning is given after Altekar (SGAI, p. 102). Jayaswal (Hindu Polity, p. 196) gives the meaning as the 'master of forests' and takes him to have been in charge also of the huntsmen in the light of McCrindle's Megasthenes, p. 86. Macdonell and Keith give the meaning as either 'slayer of cows' or 'huntsman.' (Vedic Index. Vol. II, p. 199). and Palāgala (the royal courier). This meaning is given by Jayaswal (loc. cit.) Altekar suggests that Palāgala was probably the King's bosom companion, corresponding to the Viduṣaka of the later period. (6) The last two are not mentioned in the Taittirīya Brāhmaṇa. The Maitrāyaṇī Saṁhitā (i.e., the Maitrāyaṇī edition of the Yajurveda) does not give the name of Palāgala, but instead gives the names of Takṣā (the royal carpenter) and Rathakāra (the royal chariot maker). The Kāthakasaṁhitā gives Govyaca for Govikarta and omits Takṣā and Rathakāra. For details see also Vedic Index. Vol. II, pp. 199 f. Thus the Ratnins seem to have formed a very important council of ministers and executive officers in the later Vedic age. RĀJA-DHARMA--(1) Literally "Law for the Rulers". As such the term means "The science of Politics" and it is same as Daṇḍanīti (q.v.). (2) In the Mahābhārata, Śānti Parva, there is a long discourse on the nature, utility and indispensability of Rājadharma. U.N. Ghoshal, with reference to that discourse, renders the term as the "whole Duty of the King". U. N. Ghoshal, HIPI, pp. 189 f. But in course of that discourse too Māhabhārata uses the term Daṇḍanīti also. Ibid., p. 190. Cf. majjet trayī daṇḍanītau hatāyāṁ sarve dharmāḥ prakṣayeyur vibuddhāḥ sarve dharmāścāśramāṇāṁ hatah syuḥ kṣatre tyakte rājadhar ma puṛāṇe (Mahābhārata, Sānti Parva, 63.28). (3) According to a Buddhist tradition, as recorded in certain Jātaka stories, this term implies ten specific royal duties. Those who ruled in righteousness, used to practise the ten royal duties, known by this term, and the names of some of them are given as alms-giving, morality, liberality, straight-forwardness, refraining from anger and from injury, forbearance and refraining from opposition. U. N. Ghoshal, Ibid., p. 69. RĀJANĪTI—(1) Also called Nīti or Rājavidyā. (2) The science of Statecraft. (3) Pandey suggests that Rajaniti is an aspect not of Dharmaśāstra, but of Arthaśāstra. K. C. Pandey, "Rājaniti or Politics", Indian Antiquary, 1964, I. 2. p. 102. Unlike Rājadharma, Rājanīti concerns mainly with the acquisitions of material prosperity and their security and safety from outside aggression. RĀJA-NĪTI-ŚASTRA--The sciences of politics. (See Rājanīti). RĀJA ŚĀSTRA--The science of politics. Same as Daṇḍanīti (q.v.). RĀJASŪYA--A ritual performed for the consecration of a King. Cf. rājña eva rājasūyam, rājā vai rājasūyeneṣṭva bhavati.... "The Rājasūya verily belongs to the King. One indeed becomes a King by performing the Rājasūya sacrifice". (Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa. V.11.12). RĀJĀ--(Nom. singular of the word Rājan). (1) The original form of this word, literally meanning a ruler, was Rat, and it is connected with Latin rex. Jayaswal, Hindu Polity, p. 183; Basham, The Wonder that was India, p. 33. (2) According to a traditional etymological derivation, presented by the traditional theory of the origin of Kingship, the Rājā is the chosen leader of the people (Mahāsammata), 'who gratifies (rañjayati) the others according to Dhamma'. Cf. dammena pare rañjetīti kho vāseṭṭha rājā. (Dīgha-Nikāya, Aggañña Suttanta, III. See Jayaswal, Ibid., p. 183 and Basham, The Wonder that was India, p. 82). (3) Kālidāsa also follows this derivation of the word Rājā from the root rañj and observes that such and such Kings are appropriately called a Rājā, because of pleasing the people. Cf. tathaiva so'bhudanvartho rājā prakṛtirañjanāt. (Raghuvaṁśa, 4.12), rājā prajārañjana-labdhavarṇaḥ (Ibid., 6.21), and prakṛtimaṇḍalam anurañjayan rājyaṁ karoti. (Vikramorvaśīyam). King Khāravela of Orissa (c. 170 B.C.) says that he had pleased his thirty-five hundred thousand subjects, with a very similar expression cf. panasisahi satasahasehi pakatiyo ca rañjayati (Hāthigumphā Inscription of Khāravela, Line 4). (4) The term meant a vassal king or even a smaller vassal king in relation to the paramount rulers assuming the titles like mahārāja, rājātirāja, and mahārājādhirāja, as was the vogue from Gupta times onwards. Basham, The Wonder that was India, p. 84. (5) The term applied to all the Heads of the families capable of taking part in the tribal assemblies constituting the government of the nonmonarchical Republics or Saṁgha-states. 'According to a rather dubious Buddhist tradition the Licchavis had no less than 7707' such Rājās. Basham, Ibid., p. 96. Kauṭilya also informs us about seven Saṁgha states, including the Republic of Liccha vis, where every privileged member of the governing assembly had the practice of assuming the title Rājā. Cf. licchivika-vṛjika-mallaka-madraka-kukura-kuru-pāñcālādayo rājaśabdopajīvinaḥ (AŚ XI. 1). See Jayaswal, Hindu Polity, p. 31, for the interpretation of the expression rājaśabdopajīvinah. According to Basham (Ibid., p. 97), it is an ironical observation of Kauṭilya, that the members of the said Republic used to "make a living by their title of rājā". (6) The term has been used in Northern India (Āryāvarta) to mean any one engaged in the ruling function (vide Kumārila on Mīmāṁsāsūtrā, II. 3.2). (7) The term used to be applied even to governors of districts (Māṇḍalikas), appointed to their posts by some paramount rulers (vide Kumārila in the same context of the Mīmāṁsāsūtra). (8) The people of Andhra (as recorded by Śabara) and the people of Draviḍa (as recorded by Kumārila) "applied the title to all Kṣhatriyas irrespective of their exercise of the ruling function or not". U. N. Ghoshal, A History of Indian Political Ideas, pp. 323 f. RĀJĀYATTĀ SIDDHI--Administration conducted by (literally dependent on) the King (without taking the minister fully into confidence). Prof. Dhruva in his translation of Mudrārākṣasa calls it an autocratic administration (vide p. 214). See also Siddhi. RĀJYA--(1) The term occurs in several prayers and oaths of the Aitareya Brāhmaṇa. Commenting on AB. 8-37-5, Sāyaṇa gives the meaning of this term as 'lordship of a country', and A. B. Keith renders the term as Kingship. J. R. Basu, IAB, p. 87. (2) In the Arthaśāstra and also in the classical literature the term means the Kingdom. Shamasastry renders the chapter heading rājyapratisandhānam (AŚ V.6) as 'consolidation of the Kingdom'. Cf. rājyakāraṇāddhi pitā putrān putrāśca pitaram abhi druhyanti (AŚ V.6). 'On account of the Kingdom the father hates his sons, and sons their father'. (AŚ. Trans. p. 284). RĀJYAVIBHRAMA--A political upheaval in the state (AŚ III.16). RĀṢTRA--(1) A territorial state as against the notion of a state of tribal nature. Cf. Atharvaveda, XX. 127.9-10, XIX. 30.3-4, etc. and Taittirīya Saṁhitā, II. 3.3-4. Vide Altekar, SGAI, p. 30 f. (2) The State as a whole. (cf. Manu Saṁ. VII. 9-10). (3) The citizens of a state as a whole (cf. Manu Saṁ, IX.254). (4) The second of the five Prakṛtis recognised by Manu in connection with his Maṇḍalatheory. (vide Manu Saṁ. VIII.157). (5) During the period between 600 B.C. and 600 A.C. the term used to be a synonym of Janapada and Deśa, in the sense of that part of the country which falls outside the capital. Jayaswal, Hindu Polity, p. 230. (6) Amara gives it as a synonym of Deśa. (7) Some thirteen sources of royal income, viz. Sītādhyakṣa, Bhāga, Vali, etc. enumerated in AŚ II.6 are together known as Rāṣṭra. (8) Another ten sources of royal income, viz. Piṇḍakara, Ṣaḍbhāga, etc. enumerated in AŚ II.15 are together known as Rāṣṭra. RĀṢTRĀNTAPĀLA--See under Antapāla-durga. RĀṢTRIKA--(Pkt. Rathika and Raṭṭhika). The governor of a district or a sub-division. D. C. Sircar, Glossary, p. 278. From Asoka's Minor Rock Edict: Yerragudi Version, lines 14 ff, it appears that the Rāṣṭrika was directly responsible to a Rajjuka. D. C. Sircar, Select Inscriptions, p. 51. RIKTHA--(1) Property left by the deceased father as inheritance (AŚ III.5). (2) Inheritance in general, since the words like pitryam and paitrikam often precede this term. Cf. nanu garbhaḥ pitryaṁ riktham arhati (Śakuntalā VI); cf. also, bhajeran paitrikaṁ riktham (Manu Saṁ. IX. 104). (3) A property in general. Cf. Manu Saṁ. VIII. 30. (praṇaṣṭasvāmikaṁ riktham). (4)=Ṛktha. RŪPA--(1) An additional surcharge of 8% on all fines. (AŚ III.18). (2) Stolen goods (AŚ IV.6). RŪPIKĀ—(1) An 8% tax to be paid in time of getting coins minted in the royal mint by any one for personal use with metals supplied by himself (AŚ II. 12). (2) Eight per cent of the salt collected as a levy by the Lavaṇādhyakṣa from the salt sellers. (AŚ II. 6). LABDHA-PRAŚAMANA--Establishment of peace in a newly conquered state (AŚ XIII. 5). LOBHAVIJAYĪ--(1) One of the three kinds of conquerors, the other two being Dharmavijayī and Asuravijayī. (AŚ XII.1). (2) This type of conqueror becomes satisfied only by grabbing the land and wealth of the defeated King. bhumidravyāharaneṇa lobhavijayī tuṣyati (AŚ XII. 1). VANADURGA--(1) Forest Fort (vide AŚ II. 3). (2) =Vṛkṣa-Durga of Viṣṇu Saṁhitā, III.6 and Vārkṣa-Durga of MS, VII.70. (3) Vana-Durga is mentioned also by Mbh. Śānti, 86.5. VĀKPARUṢYA--(1) One of the eight Krodhajavyasanas (Manu Saṁ. VII.48). Or one of the three Kopaja Vyasanas recognised by Kauṭilya. AŚ VIII. 3. (2) Kauṭilya enumerates three varieties of it, viz, Upavada (reference to one's physical deformities by way of abusing), Kutsana (censuring some one by calling him a lunatic or by using any such word of censure) and Abhibhartsana (use of severe language by way of showing fear of murder, etc.) (AŚ III. 18). VĀJAPEYA--A preliminary rite performed by a King prior to his consecration. Macdonell and Keith, Vedic Index, Vol. II, p. 281. This rite was supposed to give the King fresh vital strength and to raise him from the status of a simple Rājā to that of a Samrāṭ. Basham, The Wonder that was India, p. 42. The details of the ritual are given in the Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa. VĀRTĀ--(1) The science of Economics dealing with Agriculture, Animal-Husbandry and Commerce together. Cf. Manu Saṁ, VII. 43, Yājñavalkya, I.311, etc. Kṛṣipaśupālye vaṇijyā ca vārtā (AŚ Į.4). (2) One of the four basic sciences (Vidyās) (Vide AŚ 1.1). (3) It has been recognised as the only avocation of the Vaiśyas, cf. Vārtākarmaiva vaiśyasya (Manu Saṁ. X.80). In Manu Saṁ, IX. 326, however, cattle-rearing seems to be recognised as lying outside the scope of Vārtā. (4) According to Kauṭilya it forms a part of the King's curriculum of studies. He is advised to learn Economics (Vārtā) from the heads of the administrative departments. Vartamadhyakṣebhyaḥ (AŚ 1.5). VĀSTU--A holding containing anyone or more of the following-a residence, a cornfield, a pleasure garden, a fruit garden, or a pond. (AŚ III.8). VIGRAHA--(1) Hostility (the opposite of Sandhi). (2) One of the six modes of foreign policy (see Śāḍguṇya). (3) It is a sort of cold war when one party remains harmful to the other. Cf. apakāro vigrahaḥ (AŚ VII.1). VIJĪGIṢU--Aggressor, the central figure in the circle of allied and enemy Kings as conceived in the Maṇḍala-theory. The Kings of the circle are determined as Ari, Mitra, Arimitra etc.with references to this Vijīgiṣu, and all the precepts of the theorists are offered only to fulfil the interest of the Vijīgiṣu. VIDYĀ--(1) Title of a traditional list of four basic sciences, viz. Ānvīkṣikī, Trayī, Vārtā and Daṇḍanīti. (AŚ I.1). (2) The subjects forming the King's curriculum of studies, taken collectively (cf. AŚ. I.5 ; and Manu Saṁ. VII. 43). VINIYUKTA--(1) An officer immediately below the rank of Āyukta. Vide., D. C. Sircar, Indian Epigraphical Glossary, p. 375. (2) May be equal to the term Viniyuktaka. (Ep. Ind. Vol. XI. pp. 80-83). VINDAMĀNĀ--A woman who remarries another man after the death of the first husband. (AŚ III.2). VIRĀJ--(1) A king who enjoys "a higher degree of supremacy as a King" signified by the term Vairājya (q.v.). (2) This term is often found in the Brāhmaṇa literature and the Mahābhārata. (3) In the Mahābhārata, this term definitely signifies a superiority of the monarch to whom it is applied as an epithet. Cf. Śānti Parva, 43.11 and 68.54. VIRUDDHARĀJYA—(1)=Pkt. Viruddharajjā. (2) This term occurs in the Jaina Ācārāṅgasūtra, quoted under Gaṇarājya (q.v.). (3) This term seems to mean a State ruled by two contending Kings at the same time. It is different from Dvairājya, presumably, because of Dvairājya being ruled by two rulers in complete harmony while it is ruled by two rulers who are opposed (viruddha) to each other. (4) See also n.2 under Dvairājya for a reference to this term in the AŚ. VIVĀDAPADAS--(1) The sources of the state law. They are four in number and are viz. Dharma, Vyavahāra, Caritra and Rājaśāsana as given by Kauṭilya in the verse: dhārmaśca vyavahāraśca caritraṁ rājaśāsanam vivādarthaścatuṣpādah paścimaḥ pūrvasādhakaḥ (AŚ III.1). (2) As found in a subsequent verse given by Kauṭilya in the same context, Caritra is synonymous with Saṁsthā and Rajaśasana means Nyāya. anuśā saddhi dharmeṇa vyavahāreṇa saṁasthayā nyāyena ca caturthena caturāṇtāṁ mahīṁ jayet (AŚ III. 1). (3) Dharma=Dharmaśāstra or the sacred canon; Vyavahāra= Vyavahārika (as given in the subsequent verse)= Vyāvahārika śāstra=the Current Law, presumably, as laid down by the Arthaśāstra, Caritra=Saṁsthā=usage ; and Rājaśāsana=Śāsana=Nyāya=King's (good) reasoning. Cf. U. N. Ghoshal, HIPI, p. 113. VIVĪTĀDHYAKṢA--Superintendent of grazing grounds (AŚ II.34). VIŚ--(1) Plural Viśaḥ. (2) The term refers to a number of villages joined together by a tribal kinship. The chief of such a group of villages being called Viśpati. (3) Also means 'the whole people', as in 'Viśastvā sarvā vāñchantu', 'Let you be desirable to all the people' (Ṛgveda, X. 173. 1; Atharvaveda, VI. 87-1). Jayaswal, Hindu Polity, p. 12 n. VIŚPATI--The chief of a number of villages joined together by a common tribal kinship. (See VIŚ). VIṢAMA-SANDHI--Opposite of Sama-sandhi (q.v.). When in a treaty the two parties aim at achieving two different gains, e.g., one aiming at an ally (Mitra) and the other aiming at wealth (Hiraṇya), the treaty is called a Viṣamasandhi (AŚ VII.9). VIṢAYA--An administrative division of a State, governed by an officer called the Viṣayapati. But the meaning was not always uniform. Sometime the term meant the whole territory. Cf. svayaṁ grasitāro nirviṣayāḥ kāryāḥ (Brāhmaṇas who voluntarily eat prohibited articles are to be expelled from the whole territory) in AŚ IV.13, In some cases a Viṣaya was included in a Maṇḍala and in some cases a Maṇḍala was included in a Viṣaya, while in certain places both the terms were used as synonyms. D. C. Sircar, Glossary, p. 377. VISTI--(1) Service rendered by unpaid (voluntary) labour (AŚ I.1). (2) Service rendered by unpaid labours engaged as a punishment (AŚ II.7). (3) Wages paid to casual labour (AŚ II.6). (4) Viṣṭi is the common designation of a varieties of workmen like the Mārjaka (sweeper), Ārakṣaka (guard), Dhāraka (weighing man), etc. (Vide AŚ II.15). (5) The host of workmen engaged in royal work (AŚ II.35). VAIDEHAKA VYAÑJANA—A spy or secret agent in the guise of a merchant (AŚ I.16). VAIYĀPṚTYAKARA--A retail seller. (AŚ III. 12). VAIRĀJYA--(1)-Pkt. (Verajjaṁ). (2) This term occurs in the Jaina Ācāraṅgasūtra quoted under Gaṇarājya (q.v.). (3) There is also a passage in the Aītareya Brāhmaṇa, containing this term, where (as explained by certain modern authorities) it is recorded that the people in general (janapadāḥ) belonging to the northern republics of Uttarakuru and Uttaramadra lying beyond the Himalayas were anointed to take part in Vairājya form of government. After being anointed the people are called Virāṭ. ....tasmād etasyām udīcyaṁ diśi ye ke ca pareṇa himavantaṁ janapadā uttarakurava uttaramadrā iti vairājyāyaiva tebhiṣicyante virāḍityanenābhiśiktān ācakṣata...... (4) According to Altekar this term denotes "a republic, a state which had no king.'' Altekar, SGAI, p. 38. (5) Jayaswal takes the term to mean literally "the king less constitution". Jayaswal, Hindu Polity, p. 78. (6) Thus this term implies a form of republic where there is no king and the political power is vested in the people at large. Martin Haug (Aitaraya Brāhmaṇa, Vol. II, p. 518 n), referred to by Jayaswal (Ibid., p. 78), also takes the people as a whole to have been anointed for assuming the political authority. of."....for here are the Janapadāḥ, i.e., people in opposition to the king mentioned as abhishikta, i.e., anointed...," (7) Vairājya, with the meaning given above, may be distinguished from Gaṇarājya by assuming that the former is a 'government by the people as a whole', while the latter is a government by a group or Gaṇa'. (8) In Arthaśāstra this term seems to have a different meaning. In AŚ VIII. 2 Kauṭilya discusses the superiority of Dvairājya (q.v.) to Vairājya. There he seems to take the term Vairājya in the sense of a "foreign rule, which comes into existence by seizing the country from its King still alive". Shamasastry, Arthaśāstra (trans.), p. 353. Jayaswal is unable to agree with this interpretation of the term given by Shamasastry, because of his unnecessarily taking it for granted that the same meaning of the term as we have it in the Aitaraya Brahmaṇa is to be found also in the Arthaśastra. Kauṭilya denounces this form of government on the ground that the foreign ruler "can never think the forcibly seized country to be his own; he taxes the people unduly, shifts the seat of government to elsewhere, or sells away the country to some other party, or being disgusted leaves it and goes away". Cf. "Vairājyaṁ tu jīvataḥ parasyacchidya naitanmama iti manyamanaḥ karśayatyapavāhayati paṇyam va karoti, viraktaṁ va parityajya apagacchatīti". (AŚ VIII.2.). In the Jaina Ācaraṇgasūtra also the Vairājya form of government is denounced. Hence, the meaning of this term in that work seems to be identical with the meaning in the Arthaśastra and not with the meaning of the term, as used in the Vedic literature, (9) Sāyaṇa, while commenting on Aitareya Brāhmaṇa, VIII. 14 ff. renders the term as 'distinction in rank from other Kings'. A. B. Keith in the same context gives the translation of the term as 'supreme authority' (vide, the Ṛgveda--Brāhmaṇas : the Aitareya Brāhmaṇa) (10) According to Aitareya Brāhmaṇa, quoted under 3 above the heads of a Vairājya are called Virāṭ. But in the same context of Indramahabhiseka in the Aitareya Brāhmaṇa and also in a passage of the Atharva Veda (17-1-22) the same Indra is called Virāṭ, Svarāṭ and Samrāṭ. This renders it difficult for us to understand Vairājya as a republic with a 'group of people' as its political heads. (See also our notes under Svārājya). VYAYAŚARĪRA--The heads of expenditure of the State. Twenty-four such heads are enumerated by Kauṭilya in AŚ II.6. VYAVAHĀRA--(1) Any transaction (AŚ III. 1). tirohita......kṛtāṁśca vyavahārān pratiṣedhayeyuḥ (AŚ III. 1). (2) The Current Law as laid down in the Artha-' śāstra. U. N. Ghoshal, A History of Indian Political Ideas, p. 113. In this sense it is one of the four Vivādapadas. dharmaśca vyavaharaśca cartitraṁ rājaśāsanam vivādārthaścatuṣpadah paścimaḥ purvesadhakaḥ (AŚ III. 1) (See Vivādapadas). (AŚ III.1) (3) Judicial procedure. Cf. Vyavahāraṣtvāṁ pṛcchati (Mṛcchakaṭikā, IX). (4) A legal dispute or a law suit. Cf Kna saha mama vyavāhāraḥ (Ibid) ?' (5) Medhātithi on Manu Saṁ, VIII. 1, explains it to mean either the legal efforts of the litigants to have advantage over each other' or 'the transactions like loans and borrowings, when they become subjects of dispute.' (6) Amara gives (Vivāda) as a synonym of Vyavahāra. (Vivado vyavahāraḥ, Amarakośa, Svargavarga). (7) =Vyāvahārikaśāstra. See No. 3 under Vivadapadas. VYAVHĀRĪ--An administrator, (vide Ep. Ind. XII). D. C. Sircar Indian Epigraphical Glossary, p. 383. Same as Vyāvahārika. VYASANA--(1) A vice or bad practice or evil habit. (2) The vices probable on the part of a King are broadly divided into two groups, viz. KāmajaVyasanas and the Krodhaja-vyasanas. Manu asks the Kings to avoid these Vyasanas with all effort. (Manu Saṁ. VII.45). (3) There are ten varieties of Kāmaja-Vyasanas (vices born of passion), viz., Mṛgayā (hunting), Akṣa (dice-playing), Divāsvapna (sleeping in the day time), Parivāda (scandal mongering), Strī (undue association with woman), Mada (indulgence in sex), Tauryatrika (singing, dancing and playing on musical instruments) and Vṛthāṭyā (loitering without any purpose). This term includes three Vyasanas. Manu Saṁ. VII.47. (4) There are eight varieties of Krodhaja Vyasanas (vice born of anger), viz., Paiśūnya (Calumny), Sāhasa, Droha (secret murdering), Irṣā (jealousy), Asūyā (envy), Arthaduṣaṇa (nonpayment of legitimate wages etc.), Vākpāruṣya, Daṇḍāparusya. Manu Saṁ. VII.48. 5) Kauṭilya uses the term Kopaja Vyasana for Manu's Krodhaja Vyasana and he recognises only three Kopaja Vyasanas, viz. Vākpārusya, Daṇḍapāruṣya and Arthadūṣaṇa. For these three taken together he uses the term Kopajatrivarga. (AŚ VIII.3). (6) Kauṭilya recognises only four Kāmaja Vyasanas, viz., Mṛgayā (hunting), Dyūta (dicing), Strī (women) and Pāna (wine). These are together called Kāmaja Caturvarga. VYĀJĪ--(1) One of seven Āyaśarīras (i.e., sources of revenue). It is to be paid to the State in the form of 5% of the commodities sold so as to ensure against any loss due to wrong measurement. (AŚ II. 6 and II.15). (2) A 5% tax to be paid to the state when somebody gets coins made for his own use with metals supplied by himself in the royal mint (AŚ II. 12). (3) An additional surcharge to the tune of 5% or any type of fine. (AŚ III.18). VYĀYĀMA YUDDHA--An open conflict with use of arms. (AŚ IX.2). Cf. mantrayuddhacca bhuyo vyāyāma yuddham.... (AŚ IX.2). VYUSTA--The regnal year or a month or a fortnight of a day as counted from the date of the king's coronation (vide, AŚ II.6). rājavarṣaṁ māsaḥ pakṣo divasaśca vyuṣṭam (AŚ II.6). VYŪHA--(1) A military array. According to Us' anas, a Vyūha consists of three divisions viz. Pakṣau (wings), Urasyam (Vanguard), and Pratigrāha (rear-guard). According to Bṛhaspati, there is yet another division viz. Kakṣau (the flanks), (vide. AŚ X.6 and cf. Kāmaṇḍaka Nītisāra. XX.31). (2) In the Mahābhārata we hear of innumerable varieties of Vyūhas, appearing more to be based on poetical fancy and poet's love of rhetorics. In AŚ a more rational classification is given and the main varieties named there are : Daṇḍa (staff-like), Bhoga (snake-like), Maṇḍala (circular) and Asaṁhata (detached). For details see P. C. Chakravarty, Art of War in Ancient India, pp. 112-13. (3) In Manu Saṁ. VII. 187 f we have some varieties of Vyūha named as Daṇḍa, Sakaṭā (cartlike), Varāha (boar like), Makara (shark-like), Sūcī (Needle-like) and Padma (lotus-like). VRAJA--One of the seven sources of royal income to be supervised by the Samāhartā. This income occurs from eight varieties of animals viz. Go (cow), Mahiṣa (Buffalo) etc. (vide. AŚ II.6) ŚAKTI--(1) The power of a King, particularly of a King who is in a mood to attack (i.e., of the Vijīgiṣu). (2) There are three such Śaktis, viz. Utsāha-śakti (the strength of marital spirit and physical prowess), Prabhāvaśakti (the strength of material wealth and political supremacy) and Mantraśakti (the power secured by superior statesmanship and diplomacy and counsel). It is also called Prabhu-śakti. See S. Mookerjee, Political wisdom of ancient India. Journal of the Bihar Research Society, XXXXV. parts 1-IV, 1959. (3) In AŚ IX. 1, Kauṭilya discusses the relative superiority of the three kinds of Śakti, and opines that the second is superior to the first and the third is superior to the second. ŚATRU--See Ari. ŚAMA--(1) Peace. (2) Policy of peace. Cf. Bhāravi's Kirātārjunīya, I. 42. (3) A state of mutual trust between Kings. In this sense this term is synonymous with Sandhi (q.v.) and Samādhi (AŚ XVII. 17). ŚĀSANA--(1) The King's writs which are divided into eight varieties by Kauṭilya under appropriate titles in AŚ II. 10. Cf. the first śāsana in the statement : śāsane śāsanam ityācakṣate (AŚ II. 10). (2) The rule or the royal sway. Cf. the second śāsana in the line quoted from AŚ II. 10 above or śāsanapradhānā hi rājānaḥ (Ibid). (3) The royal command, (Raghuvaṁśa, 14.83). (4) Any royal charter (cf. Nidhanpur C.P. Grant of Bhāskara varman, V. 28. vide Kāmarūpaśāsanāvalī p. 27). (5) King's decree (Ājñā) which is more precisely called Rājaśāsana (=Rājājnā) which is said to be one of the four feet of the subject-matter of a suit (Vivādārtha) by Kauṭilya in AŚ III. la. As found in a subsequent verse given by Kauṭilya this decree is based on King's good reasoning, as Rājaśāsana is said to be synonymous with Nyāya in that verse. (See Vivādapadas). ŚĀSANAHARA-DŪTA--(1) A royal messenger, who merely delivers the message and takes back the reply; he cannot negotiate of his own accord. A. S. Altekar. SGAI, p. 301. (2) He possesses only half of the qualities of an Amātya. ardhaguṇahīnaḥ śāsanaharaḥ (AŚ I. 16). (3) Because of possessing half of the qualities of an ideal Amātya he may be supposed to be of the status of a third grade Amātya. (See Amātya-sampat). ŚĀSAYITĀ--One who prepares a copper plate grant. Cf. Nidhanpur C.P. Grant of Bhāskaravarman, line 135. (Kāmarūpaśāsanāvalī, p. 26). ŚIVIRA--A military camp. See Skandhāvāra. ŚUDDHA VADHA--Capital punishment without physical torture. (AŚ IV. 10). ŚULKA--(1) A toll or customs duty. (vide AŚ II. 21 etc. cf. Manu Saṁ. 8.159). (2) According to Kauṭilya there are three varieties of Śulka, viz. Vāhyaśulka (Duty levied on goods produced in the countryside), Ābhyantara śulka (Duty levied on goods produced in the city) and Ātithya śulka (Duty levied on goods produced outside the country). Each of these three types of Śulka are again sub-divided into two types viz., Niṣkrāmya śulka (Export duty) and Prāveśya śulka (Import duty) (vide AŚ II. 22). (3) Manu uses the term also in the sense of a purchase-price for a bride. cf. Manu Saṁ. III. 51, VIII, 204, IX. 93 etc. (4) According to Amara the ferry duties and similar dues are called Śulka. ghaṭṭādideyaṁ śulkostrī (Amara kośa, Ksatriya varga). (5) Compare also the term Vali. ŚULKĀDHYAKṢA--(1) Superintendent of tolls or customs duties. (AŚ II. 21). (2) Toll collector or customs officer. (3) In certain places this officer is also called Śaulkika. SŪNĀDHYAKṢA--Superintendent of slaughterhouses. He is to see that only such animals which are permitted to be killed by the state are butchered in the slaughter houses and is to ensure that only fresh and bone-less meat is sold in the market. The duties of this officer are detailed in AŚ II. 26. ŚAULKIKA—(1) Same as Śulkādhyakṣa. (2) Superintendent of tolls or customs duties. (3) Toll-collector or customs officer. (4) This term is used in Pāla and Paramāra Inscriptions in the sense of a Śulkdhyakāsa. cf. also Yājñavalkyaṣmṛti. II. 173. Cf. U.N. Ghoshal, Hindu Revenue System, p. 246. ŚREṆĪ--(1) A guild or company of traders, artisans etc. (Apte). Cf. kāruḥ śilpī saṁhataistairdvayoḥ śreṇīh sajātibhiḥ (Amarakośa, Śudrvarga). In Arthaśāstra, IV.1, this term is used in this sense in the context of the behaviour of the artisans (Kāru). (2) From various references, such as one in AŚ VIII.4., to Śreṇī and Śreṇīmukhya in the same place, the Śreṇīs seem to have had some sort of self-government and a corporate life. (3) From other references, such as one in AŚ VII. 1, the srenis (guilds) seem to have been maintaining their own troops. Cf. "āyudhīyaprāyaśśreṇiprayo va me janapadah...." etc. (AŚ. VII. 1). These are the troops referred to by the term Śreṇī-bala of the sixfold division of army (i.e. Ṣaḍaṇga bala). According to R. C. Majumdar there were certain such guilds, members whereof "followed some industrial arts and carried on military profession at one and the same time". Corporate Life in Ancient India (1922), pp 30-31. (4) In the discussion on Sa ṁgha-republics, Kauṭilya once again mentions the term Śreṇī. Cf. kāmboja surāṣṭra-kṣatriya-śreṇvādayo vārtāśastropajīvinaḥ (AŚ XI. 1). Here the term does not mean a guild. Here Śreṇī is a proper name and it is the name of a Saṁgha-republic. In the given quotation Kauṭilya mentions four Saṁgha-republics and they are the republics of the Kāmbojas, the Surāṣtras, the Kṣatriyas and the Śreṇīs. Kauṭilya further informs that the citizens of these republics followed industry and agriculture and fighting as their profession. Jayaswal, Hindu Polity, pp. 51-53.. In the quoted passage Kṣatriya and Śreṇī are mentioned as two republics side by side. In the records of the Macedonian writers also we have reference to two neighbouring states of Sind, viz. Xathroi and Agesinae. The first of these two names corresponds to Kṣatriya and the second to Agra-śreṇī. Kauṭilya's Śreṇī is possibly an abbreviation of Agra-śreṇī of the Macedonian records. Jayaswal, Ibid., pp. 52 f. ŚREṆĪ-BALA--Troops raised from the guilds. For several other probable but less convincing interpretations of the term see P. C. Chakravarti, The Art of War in Ancient India, p. 5 f. See Saḍaṇga bala and Śreṇī. ŚREṆĪMUKHYA. The leader of a guild (Śreṇī). Though the Śreṇīs were somewhat autonomous, their leaders used to get a salary from the king and the same is fixed at 8000 paṇas per annum (AŚ. V. 3 and VIII. 4.) ṢADAṄGA-BALA--(1) The six-fold army conristing of Maula (hereditary troops), Bhaṛtaka (mercenary soldiers), Śreni (troops raised from the guilds), Mitra (soldiers supplied by feudatory chiefs or allies), Amitra (soldiers won over from the enemy), and Aṭavībala (soldiers received from forest rulers). Also called Bhṛta-bala or Bhṛtya-bala. Also called Suhṛd-bala. Also called Dviṣad-bala. Also called Āṭavika-bala. Cf. maula-bhṛtaka-śreṇī-mitra-amitra-aṭavī-balānāṁ samutthānakālaḥ (AŚ. IX. 1). (2) Manu Saṁhitā, VII.185 refers to a six-fold army (ṣaḍvidhaṁ balaṁ), which is explained by Kulluka as Senā and Karmakaras (workmen) in addition to Hastī, Aśva, Ratha and Padāti. hastyaśvarathapadātisenā karmakarātmakaṁ ṣaḍvidhaṁ balam (Kulluka's Com. on Manu Saṁ VII.185). It is not clear what is meant by the term Senā, when the infantry is already recognised by the term Padāti. (3) It is quite probable that in Kulluka's com. Padāti-senā is a single word meaning the infantry. Another word Kośa is dropped out due to scribal or printing mistake. For, Medhātithi clearly names Hastī, Aśva, Ratha, Padātisenā, Kośa (treasure) and Karmakara (workmen), while referring to others, interpretation of the expression ṣaḍvidhaṁ balam. Medhātithi's own view is that the expression ṣaḍvidha-bala refers to Maula, Bhṛtya-, Śreni-, Mitra-, Amitra and Āṭavika-bala. Cf. hastyaśva-ratha-padāti-senā-kośa-karmakarātmakaṁ ṣaḍvidhaṁ balam ityanye....maulabhṛtyaśreṇīmitrā-mitrāṭavikabala bhedāt (Medhātithi on Manu Saṁ VII. 185). Mahābhārata, Śānti Parva, 121, 44 mentions also an eightfold division of the army, containing 'the usual four and workmen, officers, spies and military guides' (see P. C. Chakravarti, The Art of War in Ancient India, p. 2). The text of the relevant verse in the Citrasala Press Edn., however, seems to give a different list. Cf. hastinośvā rathāḥ pattirnāvo vististathaiva ca daiśikāś cāvikāścaiva tadaṣṭāṅgaṁ balam smṛtam. Here, Viṣṭi-workman, daiśikāḥ-military guides, nāvah seems to mean boats and āvikāḥ most probably mean the spies in the guise of shepherds. Kauṭilya in AŚ IX. 2 discusses the relative superiority of the six types of army, viz. Maulabala, Bhṛtabala, etc. In the given list the later ones are successively inferior to the earlier ones in the matter of keeping ready for an engagement, cf. (pūrvaṁ pūrvaṁ caiṣāṁ śreyas sannāhayitum) (AŚ. IX. 2). ṢAḌVIDHA-BALA--See Ṣaḍaṅga-bala. ṢAḌGUṆYA--(1)=Ṣaḍguṇāḥ. (2) =The six modes of foreign policy taken together. The six modes are viz. Sandhi (peace or alliance), Vigraha (conflict or a sort of cold war), Yāna (military expedition against the enemy), Āsana (waiting in preparedness for repelling a charge), Saṁśraya (seeking shelter with another mighty king), Dvaidhībhāva (duplicity) (AŚ. VII. 1). (3) Cf. sandhir nā vigraho yānam āsanaṁ dvaidham āśrayaḥ ṣaḍguṇāh (Amarakośa, Kṣatriyavarga). Here, Dvaidham is given for Dvaidhībhāva, and the article nā signifies masculine gender of the word Sandhi. (4) See also Yājñavalkya Smṛti, I. 347, Manu Saṁhitā, VII. 160, etc. SACIVA--(1)=Minister. (2) =Counsellor. (3) Manu suggests that a king should appoint seven or eight Sacivas after fully testing them. sacivān sapta cāṣṭau vā prakurvīta parīkṣitān (Manu Saṁ, VII. 54). Kulluka in this context gives the meaning of Saciva as Amātya. Hence a Saciva is same as Amātya (q.v.) in duty, responsibility and status. (4) According to Amara, there are two types of Saciva, viz., Dhīsaciva and Karmasaciva. The Dhīsaciva is a Mantrī or counsellor taking vital part in policy matters. The Karmasaciva is an executive officer. mantrī dhīsacivomātyo'nye kar masacivāstataḥ (Amarakośa, Kṣatriyavarga). SACIVĀYATTĀ-SIDDHI--Administration conducted by (literally dependent on) the Minister (without duly consulting the king). This term is used in Mudrārākṣasa III. See Siddhi. SATRĪ-A kind of spies, very intimately associated with the King and maintained by the King. They learn astrology, astronomy, sorcery, folk lore on omens and other allied sciences and roam about in the guise of students for carrying out some secret missions. (AŚ. I.10, I.12 etc.). SANDHI--(1) Peace or alliance. (2) It is one of the six modes of foreign policy (see Sāḍguṇya). (3) It is an agreement between two hostile Kings to stop hostility on the basis of certain agreed terms in respect of land, wealth, etc. Cf. paṇabandhaḥ sandhiḥ (AŚ. VII. 1). (4) A state of mutual trust between Kings. In this sense Sandhi, Śama and Samādhi are synonyms. Cf. śamasāsandhissamādhi rityekorthaḥ rājñāṁ viśvāsopagamah śamas-sandhi-samādhiriti (AŚ. VII. 17). (5) Kauṭilya in AŚ. VII.9 describes three subvarieties of Sandhi, viz. Śamasandhi, Vi,amasandhi and Atisandhi in one manner, and another five sub-varieties, viz. Mitrasandhi, Hiraṇyasandhi, Bhūmisandhi, Karmasandhi and Anavasitasandhi (q.v.), in another manner. SANNIDHĀTĀ—(1) Treasury officer. (2) A top official in charge of the development and protection of the royal exchequer. (3) AŚ. II.5 suggests that he should supervise the construction of the treasury, the house of commerce, the granary, the store, the armoury and the jail. (4) Sannidhātā is one of the 18 Mahāmātras. (5) This term corresponds to the Samgrahita (q.v.) of the list of Ratnins (q.v.). SAPTA-PRAKRTAYAH--The seven mutually beneficial elements of the state. Same as Saptāṅga (q.v.). Kauṭilya (AŚ. VI.1) uses the term Prakṛti in this sense, while Kāmandaka (IV.1) uses the term Aṅga. Altekar calls them "the seven constituents of the state", while Ghoshal the seven constituent elements (prakṛiti) of the political organisation (rājya)'. SGAI, p. 45. HIPI, p. 84. SAPTĀṆGA--(1) The seven mutually beneficial elements (of constituents) of the state. Cf. svāmyamātyaśca rāṣṭṛaṁ ca durgaṁ kośo balaṁ suhṛt pasparopakārīdaṁ saptāṅgaṁ rājyam ucyate. (Kāmandaka, IV.1). They are named by Kāmandaka as, Svāmī (the King), Amātya (the Ministers), Rāṣṭra (the territory along with the people), Durga (the fort), Kośa (the exchequer), Bala (the military power or force) and Suhṛt (allies). (2) Manu calls them the seven Prakṛtis and also the seven Aṅgas. Cf. svāmyamatyau puraṁ rāṣṭraṁ kośadaṇḍau suhṛt tathā sapta prakṛtayo hyetāḥ saptāṇgaṁ rājyam ucyate (Manu Saṁ, IX. 294). Cf. saptāṅgaṁ rājyaṁ ucyate (Manu Saṁ, IX. 294) and saptāṅgasyeha rājyasya, etc. (Manu Saṁ, IX. 296). In the list of Aṅgas or Prakṛtis, given by Manu, we have Pura in the sense of the fortified royal city in place of Durga, and Daṇḍa (the four-fold army) in place of Bala. Cf. puraṁ rājnaḥ kṛtadurga-nivaśanagaram (Kulluka's Com. on Manu Saṁ. IX. 294). (3) Kauṭilya applies the term Prakrti for Aṅga. In his list of Sapta Prakṛtayaḥ, we have Durga in place of Pura, Janapada (the territory along with the people) in place of Rāṣtṛa, and Mitra (allies) for Suhṛt. svāmyamātya-janapadadurga-kośa-daṇḍa-mitrāni Prakṛtayaḥ (AŚ. VI.1). (4) Mahābhārata uses the term Saptāṅga (Śānti Parva, 59.51). Saptaṅgasya ca rājyasya hrāsavṛddhisamañjasam. The seven Aṅgas (elements) are named as Ātma (self, i.e., Svāmī), Amātya, Kośa, Daṇḍa, Mitrāni, Janapadaḥ and Pura. Śānti Parva, 69.64-65. SABHĀ--A popular assembly of the Vedic age. "Probably it was a standing and stationary body of selected men working under the Samiti. The Sabhā had its president called Sabhāpati". The Sabha worked as the national judicature. Vide Jayaswal, Hindu Polity, p. 17 f, In Atharvaveda Sabhā is described as a sister of Samiti. Cf. sabhā ca ma samitiścāvatām prajā-paterduhitarau saṁvidāne (Atharvaveda, 7. 13.1). "Perhaps the first was a meeting of the great men of the tribe while the second was a mass gathering of all free tribesmen or of heads of families. These two bodies exerted much influence on the king and their approval was necessary to ensure his accession". Basham, The Wonder that was India, p. 33. SAMADHIGATAPAÑCA-MAHĀŚABDA--See Prāpta-pañca-mahā-śabda. SAMĀDHI--Political reconciliation. A state of mutual trust between Kings. In this sense it is synonymous with Śama and Sandhi. (AŚ. VII. 17). SAMĀHARTĀ--(1) Collector of Revenue. He is required to supervise the seven sources of revenue income of the state, viz. Durga, Rāṣṭra, Khani, Setu, Vana, Vraja and Vanikpatha as detailed in AŚ II.6. (2) One of the 18 Tīrthas. (see Tīrtha). (3) Samāhartä was to divide the entire countryside into four sectors each of which was to be put under the charge of a subordinate officer called Sthānika and into certain Blocks (each containing some five to ten villages), each of which was to be put under the charge of a subordinate officer called Gopa (AŚ II. 35). Through these subordinate officers the Samāhartā kept a record of the population, produce and other sources of income etc. (4) The term Samāhartā corresponds to the term Bhāgadhuk (q.v.) of the list of Ratnīns (q.v.). SAMITI-The greatest popular assembly of the Vedic age. The Samiti was the gathering of the whole race or of the heads of all the families. Its main function was to elect the King. A King could remain in office only so long as he could be agreeable to the Samiti. Cf. dhruvāya te samitiḥ kalpatāmiha (Atharvaveda, 6.88.3) (Let you definitely remain the choice of the Samiti). In a celebrated hymn of the Ṛgveda there is a prayer for 'a common Samiti' and 'a common policy of State'. Cf. samāno mantraḥ samitiḥ samānī (Rgveda X. 191.3). Hence, we may gather that the Samiti used to deliberate on policy matters also. In the Atharvaveda, Samiti is described as the sister of Sabhā (q.v.). See Basham, The Wonder that was India, P. 33 and Jayaswal, Hindu Polity, pp. 12 f. SAṀUDAYA--Properly received royal income from various sources of income (AŚ II.6, II. 8). SAṀGRAHAṆA--An administrative circle consisting of ten villages. Each Saṁgrahaṇa was to be under an administrative officer called Gopa. (AŚ II.1). SAṀGRAHITĀ--(1) The royal Treasurer. As such he is one of the eleven Ratnīns (q.v.). (2) In time of Kauṭilya, this high officer came to be called Sannidhātā (q.v.). SAṀGHA--(1) =Gaṇa, a tribal republic. (2) That Saṁgha is a synonym of Gaṇa is evidenced by Pāṇini III.3.86 and Majjhima Nikāya (1.4.5.35). Saṁghodghau.gaṇa-praśaṁsayoḥ (Pāṇini III. 3. 86). imesam pihi bho gotama samghānaṁ ganānaṁ seyathīdam vājjinaṁ mallānaṁ (Majjhima Nikāya, 1.4.6.35). (3) Typical examples of Saṁgha-republics are those of the Vajjis and Mallas referred to in the Majjhima Nikāya. (4) From Kauṭilya we learn that States with Saṁgha form of government were prevalent side by side with the states with monarchical form of government. In AŚ XI.1 he observes that a king should always endeavour to gain the Saṁghas as ally. The gain of the Saṁghas as ally is the best amongst the gains of wealth, arms and army. Saṁghalābho daṇḍa-mitra-lābhānām uttamaḥ (AŚ XI. 1). He further observes that the Saṁghas are unvulnerable to the enemies because of their unity. Saṁgha hi saṁhatatvādadhṛsyaḥ pareṣām (AŚ XI. 1). Some of the Saṁgharepublics named by Kauṭilya are--Licchivikas, Vrajikas, Mallakas, Madrakas, Kukuras, Kurus and Pañcālas. See AŚ XI. 1. SAṀGHA-MUKHYA--(1) Same as Gaṇa-mukhya. (2) While the term Gaṇa refers to the entire political community (having a republican type of government without a single King) there seems to have been a governing body of the republics, comprising of the Gaṇamukhyas (Gaṇa-chiefs) and a Gaṇa-pradhana (Gaṇa-president). Cf. Jayaswal, Hindu Polity, p. 103. (3) Kauṭilya suggests fair and foul means for polluting the character of the Saṁgha-mukhyas for the purpose of winning the Saṁgha-republics by weakening their political fabric in AŚ XI.1. But in the concluding verse of the same chapter he observes that the Saṁgha-mukhya should administer justice, should have control over his senses, should be energetic, should be dear to the citizens and should always endeavour to attract their mind. Cf. saṁgha-mukhyaśca saṁgheṣu nyāya-vṛttihitahpriyaḥ dānto yuktajanastisthet sarvacittāṇuvartakaḥ (AŚ XI. 1). (4) Mahābhārata, Śānti Parva (Ch. 107, VV. 2325) instructs that it is the duty of the Gaṇamukhyas to conduct the affairs of the community.(lokayātrā samāyāttā). The policy resolutions should remain with the Gaṇa-praḍhāna, and the entire political community (i.e. the Gaṇas) should not learn all the policies in their entirety. The Gaṇa-pradhana should finalise the policies in the interest of the Gaṇa (the entire political community) in a meeting with the Gaṇa-mukhyas. Cf. Jayswal loc. cit, and the following : tasmān mānayitavyāste gaṇamukhyāḥ pradhānataḥ lokayātra samāyattā bhuyasī teṣu pārthiva mantraguptiḥ pradhaneṣu cāraścāmitrakarśanam na gaṇaḥ kṛtsnaśo mantraṁ śrotum arhanti bhārata gaṇamukyaistu saṁbhuya kāryam ganahitam mithaḥ (Mahābhārata, Śānti Parva, Ch. 107. VV. 23-25). SAMRĀṬ--An emperor, having lordship over a number of feudatories, his empire being known as Sāmrājya. Basham, The Wonder that was India, p. 94; Altekar, SGAI, p. 37. This term has almost the same connotation since the Vedic age. Cf. varuṇaḥ samrāṭ samrāṭpatiḥ sāmrājyam asmin yajñe (Śatapatha-Brāhmaṇa, 11-4-3-10) (Varuṇa is the universal sovereign, the lord of universal sovereigns; the universal sovereignty originated in him....). This term used to imply a higher degree of supremacy of the king to which it is applied as an epithet. Cf. Mahābhārata, Śānti Parva, 43.11 and 68.54. SAṀŚAYA-TRIVARGA--Artha and Anartha, Dharma and Adharma, Kāma and Śoka-these three pairs are together called Saṁśaya-trivarga as each of these pairs involves some Saṁśaya (a state of getting puzzled) (AŚ. IX.7). SAṀŚRAYA--(1) Seeking shelter. (2) It is one of the six modes of foreign policy (see Ṣāḍguṇya). (3) Kauṭilya maintains that a King, being in hostility with another, takes shelter with yet another more powerful King by surrendering himself and his belongings, cf. parārpaṇaṁ saṁśrayaḥ (AŚ VII.1). SAHAJA-BALA--Strength of a King's own self. SAHAJA-MITRĀ--See Mitra. SAHAJA-ŚATRU--An enemy by birth. A King of a different country who happens to bear some family relation with the Vijīgiṣu, becomes an enemy of this sort. Cousins and even full-blooded brothers are apt to come under this category. S. Mookerjee, Political Wisdom of Ancient India, Journal of the Bihar Research Society, XXXXV, parts I-IV. December 1959. (See Ari). SAHOḌHA--The son of a woman married in a pregnant state by another man (with or without the knowledge of her pregnancy) is a Sahoḍha son to the present husband of the woman. (Manu Saṁ. IX. 173) (cf. AŚ. III.7). SĀKṢĪ--A witness, an eye-witness. SĀNDHIVIGRAHIKA--Minister for peace and war. Allahabad Stone Pillar Inscription of Samudragupta (line 32) describes the author Hariseṇa as a Sāndhivigrahika. See, D. C. Sircar, Select Inscriptions, p. 268 n. 1. He had also 'more definite military functions and often accompanied the King on campaign'. Basham, The Wonder that was India, p. 100. SĀMA--(1) The first of the four Upāyas (q.v.). (2) It is the policy of conciliation or negotiation used as a means of success against an enemy. (3) According to Kauṭilya there are five kinds of Sama, viz. Guṇasaṁkīrtana (flattery), Saṁbandhopākhyāna (references to close and cordial relationship), Parasparopakārasandarśana (acknowledgement of good done to each other), Āyatipradarśana (reference to the prospect of certain mutual benefits), Ātmopanidhāna (surrender of wealth for mutual free use with the acknowledgement of mutual non-difference). (AŚ. II. 10). SAMANTA--(1) A feudatory ruler. D. C. Sircar, Indian Epigraphical Glossary, p. 289. Apte, Students' Sanskrit English Dictionary, p. 598. (2) A neighbour. AŚ. III.8 etc.; Apte, Ibid. SAMAVĀYIKA—A group of allied Kings. (AŚ. VII.5). SAMASANDHI--When in a treaty (Sandhi) there is an agreement to stop hostility for achieving a common gain, the treaty is called Samasandhi. For example, if both the parties aim at gaining an ally (Mitra) it is a Sama-sandhi (AŚ. VII.9). SAMBANDHOPĀKHYĀNA—(1) One of the five varieties of Sāma (q.v.). It is an act of conciliation by way of referring to close and cordial relationship, already existing between the parties concerned, which is based on identity of family, matrimony, similarity of education, priesthood, family tradition, mutual attraction of heart and mutual benefit. Cf. jñāti-yauna-maukha-śrauvakula-hṛdaya-mitrasaṁkīrtanam saṁbandhopākhyānam (AŚ. II.10). SAMBHŪYA SAMUTTHĀNA--A joint trade by a group or company. (AŚ. III.14). SĀMRĀJYA--(1) The term occurs in several prayers and oaths of the Vedic literature. Sāyaṇa commenting on Aitareya Brāhmaṇa, 8-37-5 gives the meaning of the term as 'rule with justice'. A.B. Keith renders the term as 'overlordship'. Basu, IAB, p. 87. (2) In later literature the term also meant an empire. SĀṀVYĀVAHĀRIKA--A middle man who earns livelihood by purchasing and selling goods produced by others. (AŚ. III.12). SĀRVA-BHAUMA--A paramount soveriegn whose unrivalled political sway extends up to the farthest limits of the land. In the Vedic literature he is also called an Ekarāṭ, and the term Samanta is given as a synonym of Sārvabhauma. Cf. ayaṁ samantaparyāyī syāt sārvabhaumaḥ.... samudraparyantāyā ekarāḍiti (Aitareya Brāhmaṇa, 8-39-1). SĀHASA--(1) Any criminal act like robbery and rape, a heinous crime, an aggressive act. Apte, Students' Sanskrit English Dictionary, p. 602. (2) Day light robbery accompanied by force (AŚ. III. 17). sāhasam anvayayat prasabhakarma. In III.17 Kauṭilya distinguishes between Sāhasa and Steya. (3) In Manu Saṁ. VII.48 it is mentioned as one of the eight Krodhaja vyasanas, where Medhātithi explains the term as 'employment of a superrior in an inferior job' or 'fine or imprisonment meted out for a negligible crime'. sāhasam jyāyaso nīcakarmaṇi viniyogaḥ, svalpenaiv āparādhena karādhānaṁ kārāvarodho vā (Medhātithi under Manu Saṁ. VII. 48). (4) In Manu Saṁ. VIII.6 the term Sāhasa is mentioned side by side with Steya, where the meaning of Śahasa seems to be 'an open crime' as in AŚ. III.17, since, in Manu Saṁ. VIII.6 the term is mentioned in the context of litigation. (5) In Manu Saṁ. VIII.138 the term Sāhasa is used in the sense of a fine or punishment. Cf. Yajnavalkya Smṛti, I. 66 etc. (6) According to Amara, Sāhasa is synonymous to Dāṇḍa (punishment). sāhasantu damo daṇḍah (Amara, Kṣatriya varga). SIDDHI--Success. It is the main objective of foreign policy. (AŚ. IX.7). Viśākhadatta in his drama, Mudrārākṣasa uses the term in the sense of 'administration'. As translated by Dhruva. Cf. iha khalvarthaśāstrakārās-trividhāṁ siddhim upavarṇayanti rājāyattāṁ sacivāyattām ubhayāyattāṁ ca (Mudrārāksasa III). "Authors of works on politics speak of three forms of administration in this world.......'' (Dhruva's translation). He speaks of three kinds of administration, viz. Sacivāyattā Siddhi (Ministerial administration), Rājāyattā Siddhi (administration dependent on the King or an autocratic administration) and Ubhayāyattā Siddhi (joint administration). SĪTĀ--(1) All types of grains collected and brought to the Koṣṭhāgāra by the Śitādhyakṣa (AŚ II.9). sītādhyakṣopanītaḥ śasyavarṇakaḥ sītā. (2) Literally a furrow and hence the cultivable land or earth in general as in AŚ. VII.17, where it is mentioned after agni (fire) and udaka (water) and said to have been touched in time of swearing or taking oath. SĪTĀTYAYA--(1) A type of levy on agricultural products. (AŚ. II.12). (2) A fine for stealing corn from another man's field (AŚ. V.2). SĪTĀDHYAKṢA--Superintendent of Agriculture (AŚ. II. 24). This officer was responsible for the cultivation of the crown-lands. SŪTA--(1) A charioteer. (2) A bard or minstrel. (3) A chronicler. (4) Sūta is mentioned as one of the eleven Ratnins (q.v.). As such Sūta may be taken to be either the court minstrel cum chronicler or the commander of the royal chariot corps cum King's charioteer. (5) The son of a Kṣatriya by a woman of the Brāhmaṇa caste. (Manu Saṁ, 10.11). Cf. Kṣatriyād viprakanyāyāṁ sūto bhavati jātitaḥ (Manu Saṁ. 10.11). Compare also: Kṣatriyāt suta eva tu, (Ibid. 10.11). SŪTRĀDHYAKṢA--Superintendent of Weaving. He was expected to supervise the state won cloth industry (AŚ. II.23). This officer is called Vastrādhipa in Śukranītisāra (II.118). SURĀDHYAKṢA--Superintendent of distilleries and drinking houses (AŚ. II.25). SUVARṆĀDHYAKṢA--An officer engaged to supervise the act of purification of gold, silver etc. (AŚ. II.13). SETU--(1) A dam (vide AŚ. II.1). (2) Some five sources of royal income viz. Puṣpavāṭa (flower garden), Phalavāṭa (fruit garden), etc. enumerated in AŚ. II. 6 are together known as Setu. (3) Mark for demarcating boundary between two plots of land or between two villages etc. vide AŚ. III.8 and Manu Saṁ. VIII.245. SETU-BANDH--A dam (AŚ. II.1). SENĀNĪ—(1) A leader of an army. (2) Amara gives Vāhinīpati as a synonym. senānirvāhinīpatiḥ (Amarakośa, Kṣatriyavarga). (3) The first of the eleven Ratnins (q.v.). SENĀPATI--(1) A general who is in command of ten Padikas while the Padika is in command of ten Aṅgas. aṅgadaśakasyaikaḥ patiḥ padikaḥ padikadaśakasyaikaḥ senāpatiḥ (AŚ. X.56). This officer was in charge of the training of all the branches of the army in respect of position, expedition, signalling, etc. (AŚ. II. 33). Cf. P. C. Chakravarty, The Art of War in Ancient India, p. 83. (2) One of the 18 Tīrthas (See Tīrtha). SENĀMUKHA--A unit of army comprising three Pattis, or in other words, 3 chariots, 3 elephants, 9 horses and 15 footmen. (AW AI, p. 83). SAUVARṆIKA--A royal officer engaged to supervise the trade of the goldsmith and the silversmith etc. (vide, AŚ. II.13). SKANDHĀVĀRA—(1) A military camp. Another word often used in this sense is Śivira. But, Śilpatantra, a work of unknown date, seems to maintain a distinction between the two terms. A military camp, of a person desirous of conquests and equipped with the four-fold army, situated either at a foreign country or in his own, is called a Śivira, while to be called a Skandhāvāra an actual fight between two kings must take place at the vicinity of the camp. Ibid,, p. 106. (2) This term is often used in the sense of the royal capital. Cf. Mukunda Madhava Sharma, 'Some observations on the Nidhanpur C.P. of King Bhāskaravarman', Journal of the University of Gauhati, Vol. XII. No. 1 Arts, 1961, p. 134. (3) Same as Jaya-skandhāvāra, "The victory camp' or 'The victory capital'. STEYADAṆḌA--A punishment befitting a theft. (AŚ. III. 9). STRĪDHANA--(1) A woman's exclusive property. (2) According to Kauṭilya it is of two types, viz. Vṛtti (land or other such properties or cash given to serve as a source of income or maintenance) and Ābandhya (Ornaments and other such gifts) (AŚ. III. 2). vṛttirābandhyaṁ vā strīdhanam. (3) According to Manu it is of six types, viz. Adhyagni (what is given before the nuptial fire). Adhyāvāhanika (what is given in time of receiving the bride on the day of marriage), Prīti-karma (what is given as a token of love by friends and relatives other than parents and brothers), Bhrātṛ prāpta (received from brothers) Mātṛ-prapta (received from mother), Pitṛprāpta (received from father), (Manu Saṁ. IX.194). This corresponds to what is mentioned by Kauṭilya as prityāropana (AŚ. III.2). adhyagnyadhyāvāhanikaṁ dattaṁ ca prītikarmaṇi bhrātṛmātṛpitṛprpātaṁ śaḍvidhaṁ strīdhanaṁ smṛtam The term is defined by neither of the authorities quoted, presumably because the term is self-explanatory. STHALA-YODHĪ--A soldier who fights, remaining on the surface of land (AŚ. VII.10). Opposed to Nimnayodhī (q.v.). STHĀNA--Same as Āsana (q.v.) and Upekṣaṇa (q.v.). STHĀNIKA--(1) A subordinate officer either under the Samāhartā or under the Nāgarika. (2) The entire countryside is divided into four sectors and each is put under a Sthānika. AŚ. II.34. (3) The entire city is divided into four wards and each is put under a Sthānika. AŚ. II.35. (4) The Sthānika looks after and carries on civil administrative affairs under the direction of the Samāhartā or the Nāgarika. STHĀNĪYA--A major town belonging to a block of 800 villages. aṣṭaśatagrāmyā madhye sthānīyam (AŚ. II.1). A court of justice under a Dharmastha is housed in the office of the head of a Sthānīya (AŚ. III. 1). STHŪLALAKṢA--Highly generous. A high generosity is one of the Abhigāmika Guṇas (q.v.). SVAYAṀ DATTA—(1) One of the 12 varieties of sons defined by Manu. (2) Same as Upagata of Kauṭilya. (3) Manu observes that the son should be either bereft of parents or abandoned by them for no adequate reason and then should come to his new father and offer himself voluntarily as his son. See Manu Saṁ. IX.177. SVARĀT--The president of a Svārājya type of republican state, as explained by Jayaswal. But it is better to understand the meaning plainly as 'a sovereign ruler'. (See Svārājya). SVĀMI--(1) The master or the ruler. (2) The first of the seven mutually beneficial elements of the state. U. N. Ghoshal (HIPI. p. 84) renders the term as 'the sovereign ruler' and Altekar (SGAI, p. 44) as 'the king'. (AŚ. VI.1). See under Prakṛti. SVĀMI-SAMPAT--The ideal qualities of the master, i.e., the king. SVĀRĀJYA--(1) As explained by Jayaswal it was a peculiar type of republican government, which according to Aitareya Brāhmaṇa VIII.14 prevailed in western India, and the president of such a republican state used to be called a Svarāṭ. Jayaswal, Hindu Polity, pp. 76 f. Cf. etasyāṁ pratīcyāṁ diśi ye ke ca nīcyānāṁ rājāna ye'pācyānāṁ svārājyāyaiva te'bhiṣicyante svāraḍ ityenān abhiṣiklān ācakṣato. . . . . . (Aitareya Brāhmaṇa VIII:14). In this and the following passages of the Aitareya Brāhmaṇa, up to VIII.19, we have references to terms like Bhaujya, Vairājya and Svārājya, which are tried to be explained as various forms of republics. But a careful examination of the passages shows that these terms imply various degrees of the states of a king. Indra had been consecrated in the various directions for various degrees of supremacy as a king, called Bhaujya, Svārājya, etc. Hence, the later kings of the respective regions also came to be known by the respective terms like Bhaujya, Svārājya, etc. By the plural number in the references to these practices (e.g. te'bhiṣicyante) only the very many kings of the successive periods or of the different kingdoms of the respective regions are referred to. These terms do not seem to refer to anything of the sort of a Gaṇarājya (q.v.) or Gaṇa-republic. (2) While commenting on Aitareya Brāhmaṇa, VIII.14 ff., Sāyaṇa gives the meaning of this term as 'independence'. A.B. Keith, in the same context, renders the term as 'sovereignty'. HASTIVYŪHA--A battle order consisting of elephants (AŚ. X.5). HASTYADHYAKṢA--Superintendent of elephants. The officer was to look after the training and well being of all the elephants of the state. (AŚ. II.31). HIRAṆYA--Tax payable to the King in cash (and most probably in gold coins alone). The term occurs in the Banskhera Copper Plate of Harṣavardhana, side by side with the terms Bhāga and Bhogakara, which also mean other forms of taxes. Vide, Raj Bali Pandey, Historical and Literary Inscriptions, p. 145 f. bhāga-bhoga-kara-hiraṇyādi (line 12). Hiraṇya may be a tax in addition to other dues or in lieu of the share of the produce. HIRAṆYA-SANDHI--Treaty for the acquisition of wealth. When in a Sandhi both parties aim at gaining some wealth, it is called Hiraṇyasandhi. (AŚ. VII.9). 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