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UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN A HANDBOOK OF CLASSICAL SANSKRIT RHETORIC

[ A Critical Study of the Figures of Speech in Sanskrit Literature: 100-1800 AD ]

Prof Dhirendranath Banerjee

HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT OF SANSKRIT, B N COLLEGE, HOOGHLY, WEST BENGAL

SANSKRIT PUSTAK BHANDAR 38, Bidhan Sarani, Kolkata 700 006 Publisher : Debasish Bhattacharjee SANSKRIT PUSTAK BHANDAR 38, Bidhan Sarani, Kolkata 700 006

© Author

First Edition : 2002

Price: Rs. 225.00

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Printer: Abhinaba Mudran Kolkata 700 006 Dedication

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UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN Preface

Aesthetics of art and literature is one of the finest contributions of human culture and with reference to this context of literary aesthetics classical rhetoric has been accepted as a fascinating subject of study for the poets, scholars and critics. In this handbook, the present author has tried to make a critical and comparative study, in brief, of all the rhetorical figures in Sanskrit as defined, explained and illustrated by the distinguished rhetors in their treatises written over a period of about two thousand years. For each figure generally one, but sometimes more than one examples and their metrical English version have been supplied, and in most of the cases, the illustrations have been explained for justification. This study was primarily conducted by the author under the scheme of Minor Research Project sponsored by the University Grants Commission and completed with the publication entitled Alaṃkārakoṣa (An encyclopedia of the Figures of Speech in Sanskrit) by the Sanskrit Sahitya Prisad, Calcutta in 1992.

Long before the introduction of the present system of educational curriculum in India in the western method Sanskrit poetics was an indispensible subject along with philosophy and logic for the teacher and the taught. It has also been included by all Indian universities in the graduate and post-graduate level. Therefore such a book like this was a long desideratum and it is rightly expected that it will serve as a guide to the students and teachers. of Sanskrit language and literature. Preface

Introduction

Atadguṇa

Atiśaya

Atiśayokti

Atyukti

Adhika

Ananvaya

Anukūla

Anuguņa

Anujñā

Anuprāsa

Anumāna

Anyadeśatva

Anyonya

Anyokti

Apahnuti

Aprastuta-prasamsā

Abhāva

Arthantaranyāsa

Arthāpatti

Alpa

Avajñā

Avasara

Ahetu

Asamgati

Asambhava

Ākṣepa

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Agama

Avṛtti

Asi

Uttara

Utprękṣā

Udatta

Udārasāra

Udāharaṇa

Upanyāsa

Unmilita

Upamā

Upamā-rupaka

Upameyopamā

Ubhayanyāsa

Ullāsa

Ullekha

Urjasvi

Uha

Ekavali

Aitihya

Kalpitopamā

Kāku

Kāraka-dipaka

Kāraṇamālā

Kavyalinga

Krama

Gati

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Citra

Chekokti

Jāti

Tadguṇa

Tulyayogitā

Dipaka

Dṛṣṭānta

Nidarsanā

Nirukti

Niścaya

Paryāya

Paryāyokti

Parikara

Parivṛtti

Pariņāma

Parisamkhyā

Pihita

Punarukta-vadābhāsa

Pūrva

Prativastūpamā

Pratipa

Prahaṛṣaṇa

Prahelikā

Praśnotara

Praudhokti

Bhaniti

Bhāvika

Bhräntimän

Mālādīpaka

Milita

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Yathāsamkhya

Yamaka

Yukti

Racană

Ratnāvali

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Lalita

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Leśa

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Vidhyābhāsa

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Vinokti

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Vibhāvanā

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Virodha

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Visesa

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Viseşokti

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Vişama

112 Viṣāda

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Vyatireka

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Vyājastuti

117 Vyāghāta

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Vyājokti

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Śruti

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Śleṣa

124 Samsṛṣti

126 Samkara

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Sama

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Samadhi

Vakrokti

Vākovākya

Vikalpa

Vikasvara

Vicitra

Vitarka

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UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN Samāsokti

Samuccaya

Sandeha

Sāmānya

Sāra

Sūkṣma

Smaraṇa

Svabhāvokti

Transliteration

Abbreviation

Bibliography

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Original from UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN Introduction

Bhāratavarṣa, that is India, the central peninsula of the southern Asia, is the ancient country where Sanskrit language and literature flourished and enjoyed an uninterrupted continuity for more than three thousand years. Indian culture is highly estimated for its heritage of the treasures of art, aesthetics, philosophy, law and literature. Of all classical traditions of language and literature Sanskrit is the most unparalleled in richness, beauty and grandeur and the most unique in variety—sacred and profane, poetic and scientific, technical and canonical. This ancient Indian language, linguistically known as Old Indo-Aryan, belonging to the IndoEuropean family of languages, was the spoken as well as literary idiom for the entire land up to 500 BC and thenceforth cultivated for academic and literary purposes for more than two millenniums as the lingua franca for the elite. Besides the Vedic Sanskrit, classical or the post-Vedic Sanskrit has preserved for us a long-drawn tradition of a highly sophisticated system of grammar, philosophy of language, poetics and dramaturgy and a vast treasure of literature.

In Sanskrit, kāvya and sāhitya are the most common terms to denote poetry or literature in general. The derivative meaning of kāvya is what is composed by a poet (ie kāvya derived from √ku or kavṛ meaning to compose, to describe, to write, to paint, to draw with colour). In Vedic and classical literary tradition, the term kavi (ie poet) is most significant; thus it is said that poet's creative faculty is threefold - smṛti, mati and prajñā ie intelligence, intellect and wisdom. Ancient Indian critics as well as their counterparts in ancient Greece and medieval European masters have fancifully dwelt upon the uncommon or extra-ordinary quality of poetic genius: his imagination, fancy, muse, divine madness and frenzy.

In the domain of Sanskrit literary criticism, the oldest and the most common term for poetics is alaṃkāra-śāstra or the Science of Literary Criticism. The word alaṃkāra as a technical term is not found in early Sanskrit literature. Though poetics was already in the stage of beginning during the time of Bharata (cir 100-300 AD) we do not find any theory about alaṃkāra, guṇa or doṣa, which are the most common topics of discussion for almost all rhetoricians of Sanskrit. We can easily assume that literary criticism or alaṃkāra-śāstra as a special branch of knowledge (ie vidyā) developed long before Bhāmaha and Daṇḍin (600-700 AD). The term alaṃkāra, on the one hand, has been very broadly used to signify the art of poetry by which poet's language and expression become invested with beauty ie saundarya which is synonymous with cāruta (sweet-ness), mādhurya (grace), camatkāra (taste), ramaṇīyatā (charm) and, on the other hand, is commonly used to denote the figures of speech. The treatment of numerous rhetorical figures shows that these varieties of figurative expression are concerned with musical qualities, linguistic pattern, sound and sense, poetic diction, ele-gance of thought etc. About hundred books were written on Sanskrit poetics and many of them used the word alamkāra in the title. The earliest books on poetics by Bhāmaha, Vāmana and Rudraţa are entitled kāvyālamkāra. According to Rājaśekhara the ancient tradition called it sāhityavidyā (sāhitya means combination of word and meaning, and vidyā is branch of knowledge). The other terms are : Mirror of Poetry (kāvyādarśa or sāhityadarpaṇa), Interpretation of Literature (kāvya-mīmāṃsā) or Rules and Regulations of Poetry (kāvyānuśāsana).

Poetry is the best expression of the strongest experience of the innermost feeling, deepest sentiment, wisest sense and sensuality in metaphor. Poet's language is symbolic and, therefore, far removed from ordinary speech. Sanskrit critics of poetry have attempted to delve deep into the philosophy of poetic art. The Rāmāyaṇa myth insists on the expression of the strongest sentiment of pathos (which may be compared to Aristotle's catharsis) as the basis of the origin of poetry. It was an expression of deep sorrow from the heart of the poet-seer Vālmīki who became charmed and enraptured by his own outpourings and asked himself: what a won-der is this which is arranged in metre, regulated by syllables and set on rhythm and timbre! The Agnipurāṇa compares the poet or the creator of poetry with God, the omnipotent, omnipresent and omniscient creator of the universe. Poet's imagination or creative vision (ie pratibhā) can go beyond any limit and works more than his experience and can create a thing of art in his own image. None but he, who is possessed of smrti, mati and prajñā (ie intelligence, intellect and wisdom) is a poet. In all respects he is a super-God. His language is emotive, imaginative, ambiguous, ironic and paradoxical. His aesthetics is art for the sake of art, for the sake of knowledge and ultimately for the sake of delight par excellence. Therefore, all art is universal, all poetic language is symbolic and in Indian aesthetics it is what is known as sādhāraṇīkaraṇa or universalisation of art. This can be compared with Kantian theory which advocates that beauty is purposiveness without a purpose, beyond itself and that the contemplation of beauty is 'disinterested', indifferent to the reality of the object and without regard to its utility. This is simply known as Art for Art's Sake or Poetry for Poetry's Sake.

This theory is almost the same with both ancient Indian and a class of nineteenth century European critics of poetry, who tried to establish that the end of poetry is not to teach, nor even to please, but simply to exist and to be beautiful. While delineating on the suggestive nature of poetry Abhinavagupta says that all objective elements as well as subjective sentiments and feelings (ie technically known as vibhāvas and anubhāvas) expressed or represented by the poet are extra-real; aesthetic delight or rasa is uninterrupted bliss not asso-ciated with any kind of objective feeling and, therefore, may be compared only to divine bliss associated only with God-realisation (brahmāsvāda-sahodaraḥ). Poetry is compared to the milk of the divine cow, whereas Santayana echoes Kant's words — the height of poetry is to speak the language of gods. In classical Indian tradition, the poet is eulogised as ṛṣi, medhāvī, krāntadarśī, turiya-prajñaḥ ie the seer, the wise man, the man with extra-ordinary vision. Bhaṭṭatauta, a renowned scholar and critic, argues that each and every poet is a seer, a saint (ṛṣi) who is gifted with uncommon qualities which transcend the present and encompass the past and the future; poet's genius is a gift of the transcendental wisdom. Poetry is praised as the first philosophy and the poet as a superior genius, the true and perfect man, a Godlike being and poet's art is the expression of the most perfect mind. The poet is called the second maker after God. So Bharata comments in his Nātyāśāstra - Oh! very heavy is the burden of the poet (aho bhāro mahān kaveḥ). Therefore, ameturism in poetry has been frowned by the critics, who condemn kukavi or a bad poet in explicit terms. False poetry or kukavitā, according to Rājaśekhara, is next to suicide or death for a poet.

A poet is a master of language, creator of poetry which is refinement of ideas, beautification of sound and sense or word and meaning. There is no end to this process of poetic creativity for which a poet makes use of his proficiency in grammar, phonetics, metrics and rhetoric as well as experience in worldly knowledge. As discipline (ie vinaya) makes a perfect government so academic discipline makes a true poet. Therefore, Ānandvardhana says that a poetic composition is not merely a combination of choicest words and agreeable meaning but it always supersedes the contextual meaning and brings out a suggestive sense that directly appeals to the aesthetic quality of the artistic mind. Modern critics of poetry also have the same feeling and express the same idea in a different way: Completion of a poem is the unfolding of a realisation, the satisfying of a need to bring to the surface the inner realities of the psyche. ... A poem comes to birth with something like an organic body.

While explaining the aesthetic quality of poet's art Ānandavardhana says that when we categorize an expression with a particular mark of a figure of speech, it is purely an objective identification, a categorization of a wholesome beautiful object into parts and, therefore it is entirely relative as well as incomplete. So he observes that alaṃkāras are not made, but born; they come out themselves through the poet's creative faculty. Before Ānandvardhana most of the Sanskrit rhetors analysed the structure of poetic language and tried to delve deep into the style of expression as well as the artistic significance of the sense. The alaṃkāra school of literary criticism tried to analyse the poetic diction not only part by part but by the complete expression and meaning also. In this connection, it would be most relevant to give in brief the theory of semantics as propounded by the Mīmāṃsā philosophy of word and meaning. The complete meaning of a sentence, according to this theory, is its whole purport (tātparya). The two schools of Mīmāṁsā explain this semantic concept thus:

a) abhihitānvaya: ie words of a sentence first denote their individual meanings and then the meaning of the complete sentence is revealed.

b) anvitābhidhāna: ie a sentence as a whole reveals its meaning through the words which are always inter-related and have no separate entity, and only after the revelation of the meaning words may be separately analysed grammatically.

History of literary criticism in Sanskrit covers a period of more than two thousand years and throughout this period a good many works on literary criticism and rhetoric have been written by expert critics and scholars. In ancient Indian tradition, rhetoric along with grammar was one of the prominent and dominant academic disciplines and like some other branches of ancient and traditional human knowledge (such as ānvīkṣikī or Science and Logic, trayī or Religion and Philosophy, vārtā or Social science and Economics) poetics and dramaturgy was cultivated and taught by eminent masters and erudite pundits. Etymology, versification, syntax, semantics, rhetoric and prosody are the anatomy and physiology of poetry. The ancient śāstras or branches of knowledge exhibit the history of their development by establishing their theories and formulating different codes for their practitioners. Ancient grammarians have rightly observed that their approach to language is purely analytical and has nothing to do with the aesthetic value of literature. But the rhetoricians' approach to art of poetry is both objective and subjective and, therefore, encompasses intimate analysis of its syntactical and grammatical features as well as its artistic evaluation through different angles which go by the name of alaṃkāra, guṇa, rīti, rasa etc.

Sanskrit literature has been made conspicuous for the excellences of its most sophisticated grammar and philosophy of language as well as most analytical and artistic concept of criticism. All the fundamental theories of literary criticism, whether it is alaṃkāra, guṇa, rīti, vakrokti or dhvani, deal with grammatical features, placement of words, syntax, phonetics, appropriateness of meaning and agreeableness of words. Therefore, it is desired that a perfect poet needs mastery of all these subjects, and besides all these he must possess high imaginative faculty and strong sense of beauty.

Standard texts of Sanskrit poetics discuss mainly the following topics:

i) utility of poetry or literature towards the society (kāvya-prayojana-ie poetry offering social status with fame and glory as well as financial support for the poet, worldly and practical knowledge; removing evils, refreshing conscience and ultimately bestowing aesthetic delight to its readers),

ii) the most essential qualities or equipments for the making of a true poet (ie pratibhā or śakti, vyutpatti and abhyāsa -- poet's genius or imagination, scholarship, practice and culture),

iii) What is poetry? Numerous critics defining in their own way the basic characteristics of poetic expression and giving importance to artful diction, figures of speech, qualities of word and meaning, avoidance of any kind of literary blemishes, suggested or extra-ordinary artistic sense, propriety in all respects, stylistic refinement of sound and sense and last of all aesthetic contemplation as the sublime beauty (ie vakrokti, alaṃkāra, guṇa, doșa, dhvani, aucitya, rīti or mārga and rasa),

iv) aesthetic realisation as the sublime essence of poetry and its psychological background (rasa-carvaṇā or āsvāda or camatkāra),

v) functions of word and quality of poetic expression (ie abhidhā, lakṣaṇā and vyañjanā - denotation, extended denotation and suggestion or connotation),

vi) classification of poetic composition (ie padya, gadya, miśra, mahākavya, nātya, kathā, ākhyāyikā etc. — poetry, prose, combination of prose and poetry, epic, drama, prose romance, historicalpoetical writings etc),

vii) figures of speech (ie alaṃkāra of śabda, artha & ubhaya -the schemes and the tropes), viii) different kinds of literary style of diction (ie rīti or mārga -- mainly two varieties called vaidarbhī and gauḍī along with other minor ones); styles are chiefly concerned with poetic qualities (ie guṇas distinguished as śleșa, prasāda, samatā, mādhurya, sukumāratā, arthavyakti, udāratā, ojaḥ, kānti and samādhi),

ix) literary blemishes (kāvyadoṣa) like ambiguity, obscenity, verbosity, lack of lucidity, harshness of sounds, abstruseness etc,

x) dramaturgy (ie dṛśya-kāvya or rūpaka or nātya) - different forms and varieties of drama, stage-performance, structure of dramatic composition; music, dance and mime related with histrionic art etc.

Alaṃkāra (ie the figure of speech) is one of the fundamental topics of Sanskrit poetics which derives its name as alaṃkāra-śāstra (ie art poetica) from the same term that signifies this special discipline as well as denotes more than hundred alaṃkāras defined, commented and illustrated by more than thirty rhetoricians in their respective works. Literature or sāhitya plainly means an appropriate combination of word and meaning which consitute the body and soul of poetry. A poet creates poetry as an artist creates a piece of art or a painter draws a picture, and in all such creations an organic completeness and uniformity has to be achieved because the beauty of art lies in it. Outward form of poetry is refinement of expression; but this is not a mechanical or artificial arrangement of word and meaning or sound and sense, but an artistic representation along with aesthetic contemplation.

Poetry is not merely a combination of appropriate word with agreeble meaning; it is, so to say, a revelation from the divine man (ṛṣi), an expression of the most wise (manīṣī) the poet, the prophet, the saint.

Figures play a vitally important role on sound-structure, meaning of word, phrase or sentence, form of expression, situations of context, moods of the speaker and what not. According to the masters of Sanskrit rhetoric, a poet is an idealist, a philosopher, a critic, and moreover he is a grammarian, a phonetician, a rhetorician, a word-master and a language-expert. Therefore, a poet needs proficiency in some technical subjects like grammar, rhetoric and prosody. Thus it is said that poetry was assigned sometimes to the care of grammar, sometimes to rhetoric. When we look at the different types of poetic compositions of the decadent period of Sanskrit literature we feel that such varieties of poetry or prose was purely written for the sake of exhibiting the poet's extra-ordinary skill either in rhetoric, or grammar or any branch of technical knowledge like philosophy, erotics etc. Sometimes it appears that the ancient rhetorical tradition is very much important to the poets who are eager to exhibit their pedantry through the common rhetorical devices. The scholastic tradition of classical rhetoric actually started after Kālidāsa though some sort of its root was inherited by Bhāravi and Māgha from their immediate predecessors. It was a period of transition from the pure and simple to the ornamental and gorgeous, from natural to superfluous and from easy to labourious.

In ancient Indian literary criticism, at least before Ānandvardhana, it was partially accepted that poetry was versified rhetoric, and figure of speech was considered as the essence of poetry or style was the soul of poetry. According to older rhetoricians poetic figures, embellishments and diction (ie alaṃkāras, guṇas and rīti respectively) are the most important and fundamental characteristic features of poetry. Sometimes there is hardly any difference between them. It was a dominant idea among the rhetors that any poetic device rendering special charm of aesthetic beauty in any way either grammatically, linguistically or artistically should be considered as alaṃkāra or ornament. Thus alaṃkāra or figure of speech was the predominant element of rhetoric and the standard of judgement for many centuries. Any aspect of poetry, whether linguistic or literary, external or internal, can be termed as alaṃkāra.

In Sanskrit poetics, alaṃkāra is one of the fundamental concepts connoting all artistic principles as well as rhetorical embellishments by which any poetic expression (or śabdārtha-sāhitya ie combination of word and meaning and their literary value of poetic diction) becomes beautiful. So the term alaṃkāra may be equated with English rhetoric signifying the art of poetry or literature. The Sanskrit term alaṃkāra is derived thus alam (< aram) √kṛ ghañ. According to Pāṇinian grammar the word alam becomes indeclinable (gati) when compounded with √kṛ in the sense of decoration, ornament or embellishment. The word alam is derived form √ṛ (aram > alam) meaning to go, move, obtain, display, throw, rise, place, insert etc. Pāṇini also refers to two meanings of the indeclinable particle alam as sufficient and prohibition (paryāpti and pratiṣedha). In his list of the collection of verbal roots (dhātu-pātha), √al belongs to the class √bhū (bhavati etc). Thus the word alaṃ literally means beauty, ornament, sufficient, adequate, enough, able and prohibition.

In the Vedic texts, numerous verbal and nominal formations (like araṃkṛtiḥ, araṃkṛtaḥ, araṃkṛṇvatu) have been used in the sense of service, preparation, making ready etc. Vedic gods are described to be very fond of wearing ornaments and decorations. In later Vedic literature, alam √kṛ has been repeatedly used in numerous forms.

Classical Sanskrit lexicons read √al as ubhayapadī (ie having two sets of verbal forms) giving alati and alate and formulate words like alaka (hair). But this root seems to be formed hypothetically since its scope is found to be extremely limited and its application is rarely found but with only few exceptions like alaka. The Brāhmaṇas and Upaniṣads use the term alaṃkāra in the sense of dress and ornament. A folk-etymology has interpreted the word thus : Why do we call alaṃkāra as alaṃkāra? It is because any woman never says alam or 'No more do I want' whenever she is offered ornaments and decorations (ie alaṃkāra).

What do we mean by the term alaṃkāra? Sanskrit rhetoricians have defined and explained alaṃkāra thus :

Alaṃkāra is beautification of poetry; any kind of poetic device giving special charm or embellishment either to the sound or sense may be called alaṃkāra. Therefore, it is simply an attribuite, ornament, or decoration. Technically it means any type of ordinary or special poetic device, any striking or unusual configuration of words or phrases or sentences or meaning. Such devices have been significantly compared either to external decorations or internal qualities of the body of poetry. Alaṃkāra is beauty (saundarya), or grace (śobhā) or charm (cārutā) or taste of aesthetic delight (camatkāra).

While making an anatomical survey of poetry Sanskrit rhetoricians have analysed it thus : Word and meaning make the body of poetry, figures of speech are its ornaments and decorations, poetic embellishments (guṇas) are virtues, organic style (rīti) is its symmetry, harmony and proportion, while rasa or the state of blessed delightfulness through aesthetic contemplation is its soul.

In the same way the modern western critics also have almost repeated the same ideas: Language is but the apparel of poetry. Ornaments are compared to flowers, jewels or embroidery or even the crimson taint... laid upon a lady's lips. Style is an organic whole, ... not the clothes a man wears, but flesh and bone of his body, ... health to body and soul.

The term figure of speech means any deviation, either in thought or expression, from the ordinary and simple method of speaking.

After taking into consideration the various aspects of the use of figurative language Sanskrit rhetoricians have defined alaṃkāra as follows: In literary art, embellishments of sound and sense are the decorative ornaments of beautification. -- Bharata Alaṃkāras are the decoratiive designs of poetry. -- Daṇḍin Figures of speech are the artistic representation of word and meaning. Any art of poet's expression turns to be its beautification. -- Bhāmaha

Alaṃkāra is beauty; any type of ornamentation of sound and sense is alaṃkāra. -- Vāmana

Literary qualities (or guṇas) are the permanent accessories of poetry while the rhetorical figures are the instruments for the artistic representation of word and meaning. -- Mammaṭa

Any figure of speech is a variety of artful diction or striking mode of expression (ie vakrokti). -- Kuntaka Like bright and variegated paintings or decorations poetic embellishments are alaṃkāras.

All the ingredients that add beauty to poetic composition are called alaṃkāra.

Alaṃkāra is the agreeable combination of word and meaning in artistic diction.

Alaṃkāras are the stylistic innovations of poet's language.

Following the Greek and Latin tradition the term Rhetoric has been defined almost in the same manner in English poetics:

Rhetoric is language polished or heightened. It is the art of speaking well, the using of words to their best advantage.

More commonly, rhetoric is taken to refer specifically to tropes and figures of speech, those graces of style and patterns of words.

Rhetoric covers all the techniques by which a writer establishes rapport with his readers.

Divisions of Alaṃkāras: Alaṃkāras or rhetorical figures may be broadly classified into two main groups:

1. figures related to words or sounds (śabdālaṃkāras or verbal figures, Gk lexeos or the schemes, Gk schēma is form, shape involving deviation from the ordinary pattern or arrangement of words creating special charm through sound effect for the reader),

2. figures of sense (artha-alaṃkāras or ideal figures, Gk dianoias or the tropes, Gk tropein to turn ie a deviation from the ordianry and principal signification of a word).

Therefore, the schemes signify any kind of variety or beauty produced through harmony and symmetry of sounds or words, and the tropes consist of any type of artful diction giving on the whole an agreeable and charming sense. Word and meaning or sound and sense are inter-related and, therefore, alaṃkāras of sound and sense are also corelated and any such division as purely schemes or tropes is not always viable. So Nagojibhaṭṭa has said that all figures are a blend of both sound and sense (ubhaya-alaṃkāras).

In addition to these two main divisions mentioned above a third group, recognised by others, is known as figures of word and meaning or sound and sense (śabda-artha-alaṃkāras). But Bhoja recognises these so-called divisions of alaṃkāras by different names such as external (bāhya), internal (ābhyantara) and external-internal (bāhya-ābhyantara). Such classification shows that some figures lie on the surface structure while others on the deep structure, and still there are others which are inter-related by these two. This analytical approach towards alaṃkāras is basically related to three fundamental set-up of poetry as a whole. These are -- formalism, structuralism and functionalism.

While most of the rhetoricians follow these common and popular divisions there are others like Daṇḍin and Kuntaka who want to explain the entire figures from a different standpoint based on the perspective of literary accomplishment. Their approach is purely artistic since they rely mostly on the value of thought and poetic diction and neglect the outward form and arrangement. Thus Daṇḍin thinks that entire vāṃmaya or poetry should be classified into twofold varieties ie svabhāvokti and vakrokti which can be roughly called simple or plain poetic statement and metaphoric expression. He again makes two broad divisions of the figures of thought: (i) svabhāvokti (any plain or simple poetic expression without metaphor or irony) and (ii) jāti (a lot of figures which differ among themselves on the basis of genus, action, attribute and object).

Vāmana considers that all these figures (tropes) are based on metaphor in any form or other.

With these two fundamental divisions Bhoja adds one more which is called rasokti (based on the suggestive sense which is beyond the reach of the primary or the secondary sense ie abhidhā or lakṣaṇā respectively). It is Kuntaka who has rejected the popular trend of literary criticism and simultaneously formulated a new approach. According to him, it is vakrokti under which all literary qualities or poetic devices have to be included. He thinks that each and every alaṃkāra or so-called rhetorical figure is simply a kind of vakrokti or artful expression. It is Ruyyaka who for the first time, gives a scientific classification of all these three categories of figures mentioned above under the following broad divisions :

1. figures of sound based on the art of repetitive pattern -a) repetition of sense (such as punar-ukta-vadābhāsa), b) repetition of consonants (such as cheka and vṛtti varieties of anuprāsa), c) repetition of both vowels and consonants (such as yamaka), d) repetition of both word and meaning (such as lāta variety of anuprāsa), e) repetition of conjunct consonants giving various shapes or figures (such as citra-bandhas);

2. figures of sense based on the art of mutual similitude -a) based on both similitude and dissimilitude (such as upamā, ananvaya, upameyopamā and smaraṇa), b) based on strong likeness (such as rūpaka, pariņāma, bhrāntimān, ullekha, apahnuti etc.), such likeness occurs due to āropa or super-imposition, c) based on likeness (such as utprekṣā and atiśayokti) which occurs due to adhyavasāya or introsusception, d) based on similitude not denoted but suggested (such as tulyayogitā, dīpaka, prati-vastūpamā, dṛṣṭānta and nidarśanā), e) based on strong difference (such as vyatireka, virodha);

3. based on mutual attributes -a) based on similitude brought about by attributive words (such as samāsokti), b) based on close similitude drawn by adjectival and nominal words (such as rūpaka based on paronomasia), c) based on suggestive sense (such as ākṣepa, paryāyokti and vyājastuti);

4. based on art of contradiction -a) based on plain contradiction (such as virodha), b) based on contradiction of cause-and-effect (such as vibhāvanā and atiśayokti), c) based on mixed contradiction (such as asangati, vișama, vicitra and vyāghāṭa), d) based on reciprocal contradiction due to mutual relation, e) based on mutual contradiction (such as anyonya);

5. figures based on the artistic device of logical relationship -a) based on pure logic (such as parisaṃkhyā and vikalpa), b) based on artistic logic (such as samuccaya and samādhi), c) based on common-sense logic (such as atadguṇa, pratyanīka, pratīka, mīlita and tadguṇa);

6. figures of sense based on artistic refinement of extra-ordinary or suggestive meaning -a) based purely on suggestion (such as vyājokti, vakrokti and svabhāvokti), b) based on extra-ordinary but clear sense (such as bhāvika), c) based on the merit of suggestive meaning (such as udātta);

7. figures based on meaning expressing psychological reactions through different kinds of sentiments and feelings like love, pathos, valour, joy, hatred etc. (such as rasavat, preyas, urjasvi, samāhita, bhāvodaya, bhāvasandhi, bhāva-śavalatā);

8. mixed figures based on sound and sense dependently or independently (ie saṃkara and saṃsṛṣṭi) -a) figures of sound mixed together, b) figures of sense mixed together, c) figures of sound and sense mixed together.

But Rudraṭa, in his Kāvyālaṃkāra, classifies the figures of sense in his own novel method. He analyses them in the following four broad groups: 1. figures based on objective relation (sahokti, samuccaya, jāti, yathāsaṃkhya, anumāna, bhāva, paryāya, viṣama, anyonya, uttara, dīpaka, parikara, parivṛtti, parisaṃkhyā, hetu, kāraṇamālā, vyatireka, sāra, sūkṣma, leśa, avasara, mīlita, and ekāvalī), 2. figures based on similitude (upamā, utprekṣā, rūpaka,ṃ apahnuti, saṃśaya, samāsokti, mata, uttara, anyokti, pratīpa, arthāntaranyāsa, ubhayanyāsa, brāntimān, ākṣepa, pratyanika, dṛṣṭānta, pūrva, sahokti, samuccaya, sāmya, and smaraṇa), 3. figures based on hyperbolic statement (pūrva, viśeṣa, utprekṣā, vibhāvanā, tadguṇa, adhika, virodha, visama, asangati, pihita, vyāghāta, ahetu), 4. figures based on paronomasia (ordinary śleṣa, śleṣa based on contradiction, śleṣa with peculiar meaning, śleṣa in conversation, hidden śleṣa, partial śleṣa, śleṣa based on apparent contradiction).

Vidyānātha, in his Pratāpa-rudra-yaśobhūṣaṇa, categorises the figures of sense into 4 broad classes according to their basic characteristics : a) figures giving complete suggested sense (such as samāsokti, paryāyokti, ākṣepa, vyājastuti, upameyopamā, ananvaya, atiśayokti, parikara, aprastuta-praśaṃsā, and viśeṣokti), b) figures based on suggestive similitude (such as sandeha, bhrāntimān, ullekha, apahnava, utprekṣā, smaraṇa, tulyayogitā, dīpaka, prativastūpamā, dṛṣṭānta, sahokti, vyatirek and nidarśanā), c) figures suggesting some sort of sentiment or feeling aroused through psychological conditions (such as rasavat , preyas etc), d) figures with implicit suggestive sense (such as upamā, vinokti, arthāntara-nyāsa, virodha, vibhāvanā, viśeṣokt, sama, viṣama, adhika, citra, anyonya, kāraṇamālā, ekāvalī, vyāghāta, mālā-dīpaka, kāvyalinga, anumāna, sāra, yathāsaṃkhya, arthāpatti, paryāya, parivṛtti, parisaṃkhyā, vikalpa, samuccaya, samādhi, pratyanika, pratipa, viśeṣa, mīlita, sāmānya, asangati, tadguṇa, atadguṇa, vyājokti, vakrokti, svabhāvokti, bhāvika and udātta).

In this connection we may refer to the similar type of classification of the figures of speech in English language : 1. figures based on similarity (simile, metaphor, allegory etc), 2. figures based on association (metonymy, synecdoche etc), 3. figures based on difference (antithesis, climax etc), 4. figures based on imagination (personification, hyperbole, apostrophe etc), 5. figures based on indirectness (irony, periphrasis etc), 6. figures based on sound (alliteration, assonance etc), 7. figures based on construction (interrogation, exclamation etc).

Number of alaṃkāras : We have already discussed that two fundamental divisions of alaṃkāras have been accepted in principle by Sanskrit rhetoricians. Along with these some other classes of alaṃkāras (relating to both sound and sense) have also been recognised by some of them. But as to the question of number of figures there is wide difference of opinion among the scholars. In the history of Sanskrit literary criticism, we find that different theories on the critique of literature have been established and such theories have critically analysed the fundamental qualities of artistic creativity which go to make the language of poetry an agreeable combination of word and meaning. Bharata's Nāṭyaśāstra is the first extant work on Sanskrit dramaturgy and some of the topics here are related to both drama in particular and literature in general. Bharata gives a list of four alaṃkāras (upamā, rūpaka, dīpaka and yamaka). But with the passage of time the number has increased very rapidly through the discovery of new figures. Numerous handbooks and encyclopedias were prepared throughout one and half millenium years (ie 6th-18th centuries AD).

As the theory and practice of rhetoric developed gradually critics and poets tried to pay special attention to alaṃkāras and in successive stages of development famous treatises on rhetoric continued to refine and modify upon the old figures. Thus the standard number of about 42/43 figures (as treated by Daṇḍin and Bhāmaha whose works display a fullfledged development of this discipline) reached up to the height of more than 100. But at the same time eminent rhetoricians like Mammaṭa, Udbhaṭa and Viśvanātha are found to be reluctant to accept many new figures either by rejecting many of them or by including many uncommon ones under the standard figures. Among all these scrutineers of alaṃkāras Udbhaṭa and Rudraṭa are very logical and systematic in their treatment. It has been categorically stated by some critics that figurative expression is the basic feature of the language of poetry, and if we categorize each and every device of poet's expression through a particular figure then alaṃkāras would be innumerable.

Daṇḍin, one of the earliest rhetors of Sanskriit poetics, says that alaṃkāras cannot be counted since they have been gradually increasing day by day and it is impossible to count them in details. Ānandvardhana also remarks that there are thousands of figures which are the topics of discussion by the past and the present scholars. Mahimabhaṭṭa also says that figures of speech are countless but a good poet successfully employs only a few.

Number of alaṃkāras defined and illustrated in standard Sanskrit texts are given below: Bharata: 4 (upamā, rūpaka, dīpaka and yamaka) Viṣṇudharmottara: 18, Daṇḍin : 42, Bhāmaha: 39 + 4 (Daṇḍin's hetu, sūkṣma and leśa rejected), Bhaṭṭi : 30-31, Udbhaṭa: 41, Vāmana: 31, Rudraṭā : 68, Bhoja : 31 old figures and 28 new, Mammaṭā : 67, Ruyyaka : 79, Viśvanātha: 84, Appayya : 82 and Jagannātha: 71, Jayadeva: 100, Kuvalayānanda : 115.

Our surprise is almost embarrassing when we are given the total number of figures by Viśveśvara Pandit in his Alaṃkāra-kaustubha: citra alaṃkāras: 1806 śabda alaṃkāras: 5421 (with main division), 104907 (with subdivisions) artha alaṃkāras: 62 (primary figures), 187 (with principal varieties), 34969 (with main divisions), 568700847 (with subdivisions). According to the old school-(i) pariṇāma is included in rūpaka, tulyayogitā in dīpaka, dṛṣṭāna in prativastūpamā, kāvyalinga in hetu, kāraṇamāla, ekavali and malādipaka in śṛṃkhalā. (ii) The following figures may be rejected since they are actually different varieties of some standard figures -citra, prahelikā, gūḍha, sūkṣma, lesa, āśis, svabhāvokti, yathāsaṃkhya, vakrokti, vyājokti, bhāva, pihita, mata, upanyāsa, avasara, ahetu, gati, jāti, rīti, vṛtti, chāyā, mātrā, ukti, yukti, bhaṇiti, gumphanā, śayyā, paṭhiti, vākovākya, adhyeya, śravya, prekṣha, abhineya, pratyakṣa, saṃbhava, vitarka, bheda, bhāva, upamāna, āgama, abhāva, sāmya, samādhi, samāsokti, aprastuta-praśaṃsā, paryāya, atadguṇa, bhāṣā-sama, niscaya, anukūla, prastutāṃkura, parikarāṃkura, vyājanindā, asambhava, viksvara, sambhāvanā, avajñā, unmilita, anuguna, ratnāvalī, gūḍhokti, vivṛtokti, yukti, lokokti, chekokti, atyukti, nirukti, pratiṣedha, vidhi, pratyakṣa, anumāna, upamāna, śabda, aitihya, arthāpatti, anupalabdhi, sambhava and ullāsa.

In this connection it would not be irrelevant to throw some light on the over-estimation of the number of figures in English literature as remarked by a modern critic :

Sister Miriam Joseph, in her book 'Shakespeare's Use of the Arts of Language', reclassified the more than 200 figures distinguished by the Tudor rhetoricians according to the four categories: grammar, logos, pathos and ethos. By classifying the figures in this way, she was able to demonstrate, quite convincingly, that the three 'schools' of rhetoric during the Renaissance (the Ramists, the traditionalists, and the figurists) saw the figures as being intimately connected with the topics of invention. ...In their passion for anatomizing and categorizing knowledge, the humanists of the Renaissance delighted in classifying and sub-classifying the figures. ...The most widely used classical handbook in the Renaissance schools, 'Rhetorica ad Herennium', required the students to learn only 65 figures. Susenbrotus, in his popular 'Epitome troporum ac schematum' (1540), distinguished 132 figures. But Henry Peacham, in his 1577 edition of 'The Garden of Eloquence', pushed the number up to 184. In spite of the fact that the classical Sanskrit rhetoricians have totally left the Vedic literature out of the perview of poetics, the first specimens of figurative poetry in simple but artful diction are to be found in the hymns of the Ṛgveda. Though the Vedas have been excluded from the domain of literature or poetry in general due to their metaphysical and religious background in cultural tradition, yet it cannot be denied that a good number of Vedic hymns are simply the outpourings of the poet's heart even if these are treated as muse or revelation. Some of the hymns are the finest specimens of figures like simile, metaphor, alliteration, personification and hyperbole. Such figurative diction is the basic element of all poetry and, therefore, Vedic poetry cannot be an exception to that. Here we may give a few specimens of such poetic expressions : a) O Agni (the Fire-god) be of easy access like a father unto his son. (simile) b) With women there can be no lasting friendship for the hearts of women are the hearts of hyenas. (hyperbole) c) His vision is, as if, spread over the universe. (utprekṣā) d) The Sun-god comes downwords for the worshipper like a husband bending down before the spouse. (simile) e) Vāk, the speech, unfolds her mystery to the wise as a wife exposes here physical charms to her spouse. (simile) f) Prayers embrace Indra as a dear wife embraces her husband. (simile). g) O Goddess of Dawn, like a smiling dame thou shine with lustre And make bare thy bosom for thy lover. (simile)

Both the words kavi and kāvya have been used in Vedic literature. In Vedic tradition, kavi is synonymous with medhāvi, manīṣi, krāntadarśī ie the intellectual, the wise, the seer; kāvya is used to mean uncommon or elegant expression through words. One Vedic poet indirectly refers to the special feature of poetic expression and its appreciation by the intelligent reader:

As barly grains are separated from the husk through the sieve, the wise (dhīrāḥ) through their minds (manasā ie imaginative power or fancy) create speech (vācam ie poetry). and then his friends (sakhāyaḥ ie the readers well-qualified like the poet) understand the proper meaning; blessed dignity (bhadrā lakṣmīḥ) is enshrined in their speech. (RV.X. 71.2)

In his Kāvyamīmāṃsā, Rajaśekhara fascinatingly idealises the origin of poetics as a special branch for the study of literature from the Vedic studies and fondly seeks its divine origin from the supreme Godhead Śiva. According to his opinion, Śiva, the master of all arts taught sāhityavidyā or critique of literature to Brahmā, the divine creator, from whom it was handed down to others through oral tradition and ultimately all such deliberations were documented in later period.

Yāska's Nirukta (cir 700-500 BC) (ie the lexicon of the Vedic language as well as linguistic study of the Vedic words) is perhaps the oldest extant work which used the word alaṃkāra in the sense of figure of speech. The earliest definition of upamā (simile) is to be found here, and a few illustrations of some varieties of upamā are also quoted from Vedic hymns. The famous Sanskrit grammar Aṣṭādhyāyī of Pāṇini (cir 700-400 BC) uses the three words upamā (similitude), upamāna (the standard of comparison) and upamita (the subject of description) which are closely connected with the figures based on similitude.

All the definitions of alaṃkāras as quoted in this work have been taken from twenty seven standard texts of Sanskrit poetics written over a period of about two thousand years (ie 100-1800 AD). Therefore, it is necessary to give a brief account of such texts in a chronological order. It should be mentioned here that these texts are not uniform in structure and treatment. Some works pervade the entire field of poetics along with dramaturgy, others deal with general and particular topics of literary criticism and a few of them propound individual theories of literary criticism like dhvani or vyañjanā (ie extra-ordinary implication of Art) or aucitya (ie propriety as the overall criterion of artistic expression) or vakrokti (ie artful diction as the essence of poetic language) or rasa (ie aesthetic contemplation offering uninhibited delight free from all objective relations -- which, in other words, is conceived in the concept known as Art for Art's sake). Since the scope of the present work is very limited here only those texts dealing with alaṃkāras either singly or jointly with other allied topics have been taken into account. 1. Nāṭyaśāstra (or The Science of Dramatics, cir 100-300 AD): The Nāṭyaśāstra, traditionally ascribed to Bharata, a mythical personality, is the oldest extant work on Sanskrit dramaturgy and other allied topics (like music and dance concerned with dramatics) as well as partly on poetics in 36/37 chapters with about 6000 verses in anuṣṭup metre (ie 8 syllables in each of the 4 lines). It is really a compilation of numerous materials collected from different sources as available in ancient Indian tradition in the form of sūtra, bhāsya, kārikā and anuvaṃśya verses (ie aphorism, commentary, definitions and quotations respectively). Different manuscripts of the work indicate that the text was compiled in different periods by numerous scholars and developed in the present form with additions and interpolations therein. Materials regarding literary theory and criticism are very scanty, but we find here the original theory of rasa (ie aesthetic contemplation) which has not only been accepted and enumerated in details by all later scholars but also served as the basis of ancient Indian literary criticism throughout the successive stages of its development. According to Bharata, the four principal elements of drama are dialogue, songs, music and dance, and out of these four dramatic conversation (ie vācika abhinaya) either in prose or poetry is also inter-related with poetics (ie nātya and kāvya closely related). In this connection, Bharata enumerates 36 lakṣaṇas and the first one is called bhūṣaṇa which is explained thus : It is known as bhuṣaṇa or ornament since it embellishes the dramatic composition with various alaṃkāras and guṇas as variegated decorations.

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Out of these lakṣaṇas only two (ie hetu and leśa) survived as figures of speech and the rest faded into oblivion. While dealing directly with alaṃkāras the Nāṭyaśāstra names only four important figures (viz upamā, rūpaka, dīpaka and yamaka). From Bharata's treatment it is clear that the theory of literary criticism had already started before the compilation of the Nātyaśāstra. Bharata just mentions 4 figures, 10 guṇas and 10 doṣās but does not prescribe any theory about them.

2. Viṣṇudharmottara Purāṇa : In the voluminous Purāṇa literature (complete in 18 Purāṇas and 18 upapurāṇas), this text is one of the most famous and popular works and basically an encyclopedia of Indological studies on the ancient as well as mediaeval culture and civilisation of the people of this land. Like all other works of Purāṇa literature it is also traditonally ascribed to Vyāsa, the legendary author of the Mahābhārata, but practically this Purāṇa, like a few other Purāṇa texts, is a compendium of different branches of knowledge cultivated in ancient Indian tradition. The original text, according to the scholars, was probably written by some unknown poet and pundit of the Vaiṣṇava sect of the pañcarātra school of Vaiṣṇavism during 4th-5th century AD and afterwards various new topics of scholary interest were added by numerous scholars in different centuries. The present text is divided into 3 parts with 355 chapters and has heavily borrowed from the noted works like the Rāmāyaṇa, Mahābhārata, Nāṭyaśāstra, Purāṇas, Smrtis of Manu, Yajňavalkya, Parāśara and Bṛhaspati.

Its III part is a compilation of different subjects relating to Sanskrit literature, art, music, vocabulary, poetics, Sanskrit and Prākṛta vernacular languages etc. While dealing with alaṃkāras it enumerates 21 varieties of prahelikā (ie riddle), 12 varieties of rūpaka as well as 15 other figures. But the list of figures of speech appears to be incomplete since some other important alaṃkāras which became already prominent have been left out. As the text is encyclopedic in character, detailed treatment of the topics is lacking here.

3. Bhaṭṭikāvya : It is an epic in 22 cantos and is known by the name of its author Bhaṭṭi who is taken as identical with Bhartṛhari, the famous poet and grammarian. The poem is based on the entire theme of Vālmīki's Rāmāyaṇa. Among the post-Kalidasan epic poems Bhaṭṭikāvya is specially treated as a śastra-kāvya or udāharaṇakāvya since it is written with the sole object of teaching different branches of knowledge related to literature such as rhetoric and prosody, literary qualities, riddles and especially grammar through illustrative verses. The complete book is divided into 4 sections -prakīrṇa, adhikāra, prasanna and tiṃanta. The 3rd section is entirely devoted to poetics and here we get 75 verses as illustrations of 38 figures in the 10th canto, 87 verses as examples of bhāvika in the 12th canto and 50 verses as examples of the figure bhāṣa-sama in the 13th canto. In his treatment of the figures of speech, Bhaṭṭi follows the same tradition accepted by Daṇḍin and Bhāmaha. Bhaṭṭi is roughly placed on the latter half of the 6th century AD.

4. Kāvyādarśa or Mirror of Poetry : The Kāvyādarśa is the magnum opus of Daṇḍin (650-700 AD) who is also the author of the Daśakumāra-carita, a prose romance and the Avantisundarī-kathā (also a prose romance which is unfortunately lost barring a few pages at the beginning).

The Kāvyādarśa, divided into 3 chapters, is an authentic work dealing with almost all the topics of Sanskrit poetics. Daṇḍin is the founder of the Rīti school and accepts two principal styles of poetic diction (ie vaidarbhi and gauḍī) and recognises the former as the finest of literary styles, which is characterised by the ten guṇas (literary attributes). But he also gives equal importance to alaṃkāras and uses the term alaṃkāra in a very wide sense. Figures, according to him, are the elements of beautification of poetry. In the II chapter of his book 35 alaṃkāras have been defined, explained and illustrated and the varieties of Upamā as given by him appears very much interesting. Among the early rhetoricians Daṇḍin holds a very high position as a rhetor and critic of literature.

5. Kāvyālaṃkāra or Embellishment of Poetry: The Kāvyālaṃkāra of Bhāmaha (700-750 AD), divided into 6 chapters containing about 400 verses along with an index of topics at the end, discusses the common topics of poetics. Like Daṇḍin he also expresses his indebtedness to his predecessors and refers to Medhāvirudra by name. Commentaries of the Kāvyādarśa also refer to Kāśyapa, Brahmadatta, Vararuci and Nandisvāmin as his predecessors; but unfortunately no treatise of these scholars has been available so far. Bhāmaha is considered as the oldest exponent of alaṃkāra school since he gives maximum importance to the figures of speech while discussing the value of poetic language. In total 38 alaṃkāras have been defined, explained and illustrated by him.

According to Bhāmaha, vakrokti or artful diction is the underlying principle of alaṃkāra and, therefore, he rejects the status of hetu, sūkṣma and leśa as figures since such expressions are devoid of any poetic charm. He also rejects vārtā and svabhāvokti and criticises the verses given by his predecessors as examples of these figures.

6. Kavyālaṃkāra-sāra-saṃgraha : Udbhaṭa (750-850 AD), the most notable protagonist of the alaṃkāra school, the court-pundit of the king Jayāpīḍa of Kashmir (779-813 AD) is the author of this treatise entitled Kavyālaṃkāra-sāra-samgraha or Compilation of essence of the theories of Literary Criticism. The name of the work significantly indicates that it is a compendium of poetics. It is divided into 6 chapters containing 79 karikās. Here 41 figures have been defined and illustrated. Udbhaṭa's commentator has informed that all the illustrative verses have been taken from Udbhaṭa's own poem Kumārasambhava, which is unfortunately lost. His second work Bhāmahavivaraṇa, a commentary on Bhāmaha's Kavyālaṃkāra is also lost. Udbhaṭa's treatment of some figures is most commendable and, therefore, his opinions have been referred to with respect in many cases by later rhetoricians.

He is a follower of Bhāmaha and repeats 15 of his definitions of figures of speech. The author defines 41 alaṃkāras and illustrates them through 80 verses.

7. Kavyālaṃkāra-sūtra-vṛtti : Vāmana (750-850 AD) is the author of the Kavyālaṃkāra-sūtra-vṛtti (or A Treatise on Poetics codified in sutras with their explanations in brief), which is written in the form of sūtra (aphorism) along with vṛtti (commentary). The total number of 319 sūtras arranged with their brief commentaries have been divided into 5 parts and 12 chapters. Different illustrations are given in 250 verses, some of which are his own compositions and others taken from his contemporary poets. Thirty three figures have been defined, explained and illustrated here. Vāmana's conception of alaṃkāra is very wide. According to him the value of poetry is to be determined by its figurative diction which means beautification of word and meaning. He is the protagonist of rīti or stylistic diction and advocates three principal styles -- vaidarbhī, gaudī and pāñcālī -- primarily connected with the poets of the three particular geographical locations, but basically related to prominent poets like Kālidāsa, Bāṇabhaṭṭa and others. Vāmana declares that rīti is the soul of poetry and it means application of appropriate word and refinement of diction. He also acknowledges special importance of figurative expression and values it more than guṇas. His classification of poets and treatment of kāvyapāka(ie to use the most appropriate word which cannot be changed or substituted) are very much interesting.

8. Kāvyālaṃkāra : Rudraṭa's Kāvyālaṃkāra or (Critique of Poetry), an extensive work on poetics, is divided into 16 chapters and contains 734 kārikās in aryā metre with illustrations of his own. He gives special importance to figures of speech and classifies them in 4 broad groups based on logical principles such as vāstava, aupamya, atiśaya and śleṣa ie alaṃkāras based on objective relation, based on similitude, based on hyperbolic statement, based on paronomasia. For such innovative treatment in the classification Rudraṭa should be given special credit because most of the rhetoricians have acknowledged the common and traditional divisions -ie alaṃkāras based on sound and sense. He has listed 68 figures, but he does not accept all the alaṃkāras as given by his previous rhetoricians, therefore he drops a few of them and introduces some new ones like bhāva, mata, sāmya and pihita.

9. Agnipurāṇa: Out of the 36 Puraṇa texts the Agnipurāṇa (9001050 AD cir) traditionally ascribed to Vyāsa, the author of the most voluminous and renowned Sanskrit epic Mahābhārata, is basically an encyclopedia of the voluminous Purāṇa literature and contains 11,500 verses. But practically the original text of this Purāṇa gradually developed into such enormous size through the addition of profuse interpolations made by enthusiastic scholars in different periods. With various types of materials of polemic nature it turned to be an anthology of Indological studies of ancient and mediaeval period. Along with other topics of poetics, rhetoric and prosody and vocabulary have been included. Here 19 alaṃkāras are defined and classified along with their divisions (7 types of citra, 16 types of prahelikā, and 10 types of yamaka).

10-11. Sarasvatī-kaṇṭhābharaṇa and Śṛngāraprakāśa : Bhoja, the king of Dhārā (now in Madhya Pradesh), is the author of these two texts on poetics. He was a great monarch, a valiant fighter, famous for many-sided qualities head and heart, a prolific writer, critic and scholar and had to his credit 84 works though most of them are lost to us. Both of his texts on poetics are voluminous in nature and contain the entire topics of literary criticism. But the Sarasvatīkaṇṭhābharaṇa (or The Necklace of the Goddess of Learning), divided into 5 chapters containing 63 kārikās along with their vṛttis, is basically a compendium of Sanskrit poetics. Here he defines and illustrates 72 alaṃkāras (24 figures of sound, 24 figures of sense and 24 mixed figures of sound and sense). The Śṛngāraprakāśa (or Exposition of the Sublime Aestietic Realisation) is perhaps the most voluminous work on Sanskrit poetics and deals with both literary criticism and dramatics. Like Viṣvanātha Bhoja also discusses the grammatical aspects of language. His main thesis centres round the conception of Śṛngara (ie the height of aesthetic delight and the sublimation of man's delightful identity manifested through artistic contemplation) and that is why his work is entitled as Śrngaraprakāśa. This book is divided into 36 chapters. The same type of classification and the number of figures have been discussed here. Bhoja gives many new figures (such as guṇa, rīti, vṛtti, racanā) and some of them are peculiarly his own discovery and not to be found anywhere either in former or in later works. He has also included some old and distinguished figures into his newfound names.

12. Kāvyaprakāśa: Mammața (1050-1100 AD), the reputed scholar and critic of Kashmir, is the author of the Kāvyaprakāśa (or Manifestation of the Art of Poetry) which within a few centuries became very famous and one of the standard works on Sanskrit poetics. He is referred to as the brother of Ubaṭa and Kaiyaṭa (commentators of the Vedas and the Mahābhāṣya of Patañjali respectively) and the maternal uncle of Śriharṣa, the author of the famous epic poem Naiṣadha-carita.

He was schooled and educated in Varanasi. His work is divided into 10 chapters containing 143 kārikās with their commentaries and illustrations. He mentions with respect the concepts of literary criticism of his predecessors such as Bharata, Rudraṭa, Lollaṭa, Śankuka, Bhaṭṭanāyaka and Abhinavagupta, but sometimes it seems that he is more eager to find fault with the opinions of others than to establish his own thesis. In this work, 67 alaṃkāras have been defined, explained and illustrated. Mammaṭa's Kāvyaprakāśa turned to be the magnum opus and the standard text on literary criticism throughout India. As a high profile critic and erudite scholar Mammaṭa ranks as one of the best along with Ānandavardhana, Abhinavagupta, Rājaśekhara, Kuntaka and Jaganātha.

13. Alaṃkāra-sarvasva (or The Essence of Literary Criticism, 1100 1150 AD): This treatise, divided into three parts and written in the form of definitions, commentaries and illustrations, is a pioneering work of Ruyyaka and treats almost all the topics of poetics. But his particular interest is to make a critical study of the figures of speech. Here 6 figures of sound and 76 figures of sense have been defined, explained and illustrated.

Ruyyaka does not advocate any special theory of his own but strongly supports Ānandvardhana's theory of dvani and also summarises the views of his predecessors like Udbhaṭa, Rudraṭa, Vāmana, Kuntaka and Mahimabhaṭṭa. He is a follower of Mammaṭa in the treatment of alaṃkāras. He mentions with respect many famous works and authors of poetics and also refers to the opinions of Mammaṭa while explaining the various theories of poetics. Ruyyaka is also the author of some other works including treatises on poetics and dramaturgy, commentaries and short poems. The Alaṃkāra-sarvasva refers to the view of the eastern school of rhetoricians like Bhāmaha, Udbhaṭa and others, who, according to Ruyyaka, think that figures are the fundamental attributes of poetry or the figurative expression is the basic feature of poet's language. 14. Vāgbhatālaṃkāra (or Vāgbhaṭa's Treatise on Poetics) : This is a small treatise known by the name of its author Vāgbhaṭa (1123-56 AD). There is another rhetorician of the same name whose work is called Kāvyānuśāsana.

The present work is divided into 5 chapters and contains 260 verses. The fourth chapter discusses 40 alaṃkāras. The Kāvyānuśāsana of second Vāgbhaṭa is written in the form of sūtra, vṛtti and udāharaṇa (ie aphorism, explanation and illustration) and gives, in brief, a complete treatment of the topics of poetics. But both texts lack originality and extensively borrow from previous works. Therefore these two Vāgbhaṭas do not exert any influence in the domain of literary criticism.

15. Kāvyānuśāsana (or Prescriptions on the Treatment of Poetry): It is written by the famous jain scholar, grammarian, critic and poet Hemacandra (11th century AD). He is a prolific writer whose works cover rhetoric and prosody, grammar of the Prākṛta language, lexicography, biography of the Jain saints, poems with double meanings (dvyāśraya kāvya) and Yoga philosophy. But his contribution to Sanskrit poetics is not very significant and therefore later rhetoricians remain silent about his work and do not quote or refer to his opinions. The Kāvyānuśāsana is basically a compilation with extensive borrowings from the works of Rajaśekhara, Ānandavardhana, Abhinavagupta, Mammaṭa and others. The work (in three parts -- the sūtras known as Kāvyānuśāsana , the vṛtti called Alaṃkāra-cūḍāmaṇi and the commentary called Viveka) is divided into 8 chapters and quotes 1500 verses from renowned poets as illustrations. He deals with 6 figures of sounds and 29 figures of sense along with their divisions.

16. Candrāloka (or Moonlight focussing the Beauty of Poetry): The Candrāloka (1200-1250 AD) of Jayadeva is an elementary treatise written in very simple and lucid style and perhaps intended to serve as a handbook for the beginners. The voluminous Sanskrit drama Prasanna-rāghava, based on the theme of Vālmīki's Rāmāyaṇa, also comes from the same author. Jayadeva is honoured with the title Pīyūṣa-varṣa (ie a poet showering nectar) for his mellifluous verses. The Candrāloka defines, explains and illustrates 4 figures of sound and 100 figures of sense.

17. Ekāvalī (or The Necklace) : Vidyādharā's (13th century AD) Ekāvalī is divided into 8 chapters and written in the traditional method of sūtra, vṛtti and udāharaṇa (ie definitions, their explanations and illustrations). One special feature of this treatise is that all the illustrations composed by the poet himself are written in praise of his patron king Narasiṃha of Utkal (Orissa). Its commentary entilled Tarala comes from the pen of the famous commentator Mallinātha (14th-15th century AD). Vidyādhara is a follower of Ruyyaka's Alaṃkāra-sarvasva in his treatment of figures. He defines, explains and illustrates 4 figures of sound and 100 figures of sense.

18. Pratāparudra-yaśobhūṣaṇa (or Ornamental glory of Pratāparudra): This treatise wirtten in the traditional format (ie kārikā, vṛtti and udāharaṇa) is authored by Vidyānātha, a court poet of Pratāparudra (1275-1325 AD), king of Varangala. In his treatment of the topics of poetics, the author follows Mammața, Ruyyaka and Jayadeva. Like Vidyādhara's Ekāvalī the illustrative verses of this work are composed by the author himself and are related to the royal glories of his patron king. Its commentary Ratnāpaṇa is written by Kumarasvāmin, son of the renowned scholar Mallinātha.

19. Sāhityadarpaṇa : (or The Mirror of Poetry): Viśvanātha (1300-1380 AD) a poet, an erudite scholar and a rhetor, is the author of Sāhityadarpana. He was a resident of the utkala province and held high office in the court of a kalinga king. A good number of works (such as epics, long poems, drama, a polyglot dictionary in 16 languages and a commentary on Mammața's Kāvyaprakāśa) have been ascribed to him, but all these are unfortunately lost. The Sāhityadarpaṇa, a voluminous work in 10 chapters is more or less a compilation of the different views and principal theories of Sanskrit poetics without any original contribution of his own. But in spite of the fact the book became very much popular as a standard text of literary criticism in Sanskrit and it is at present, as it was previously, an indispensible text for Sanskrit students and teachers because of the fact that the book extensively deals with all topics of poetics as well dramaturgy. 84 figures have been defined explained and illustrated by Viśvanātha.

20. Kāvyānuśāsana (or A Manual on the Theories of Poetry): The text as well as its commentary are written by Vāgbhaṭa (14th century AD) who is different from Vāghaṭa, the Jain scholar and author of Vāgbhaṭālaṃkāra mentioned previously. The work divided into 5 chapters is originally a compendium and profusely borrows from Rājaśekhara's Kāvya-mīmāṃsā and Mammaṭa's Kāvyaprakāśa. It deals with 6 figures of sound and 63 figures of sense.

21. Alaṃkāraśekhara (or A Jewel of Literary Criticism) : This treatise (1550-1600 AD) of Keśavamiśra consists of kārikās, vṛttis and illustrations. But the author himself reports that the kārikās are composed by one Śauddhodani, about whom no information is available from any source. The work is divided into 8 chapters and deals with the principal topics of poetics. But this minor work bears no importance at all. The author has simply supplied brief explanations and the illustrations to the original text of another scholar. Most of the illustrations are taken from previous works on poetics.

22-24. Appayya Dikṣita (1520-1593 AD) is a prolific writer and erudite scholar. About 100 works are ascribed to him, but unfortunately most of them are lost. His three works on poetics - Vṛttivārtika, Kuvalayānanda and Citramīmāṃsā are avaible. In the first work he deals with the relation of word and meaning and their functions. The second work is an elementary treatise on the figures of speech. It is not an original work, but he has borrowed the definitions and illustrations from Jayadeva's Candrāloka. The Citramīmāṃsā discusses, in brief, the fundamental topics of poetics. Here his treatment is quite novel because first of all he defines the principal topics in kārikās and then submits the views of other rhetoricians with critical comments and rejects them if and when necessary. But unfortunately here we find only 11 figures of sense and with atiśayokti it ends in the mid-way abruptly. While refuting the views of Citramīmāṃsā in his Citramīmāṃsā-khaṇḍana Jagannātha comes up to apahnuti. 25-26. Rasagangādhara (or The Master of Aesthetics) : The last of the best renowned works on Sanskrit poetics is Jagannātha's Rasagangādhara. The author, a Tailanga brahmin of Andhra family, was honoured with the title Paṇḍitarāja or the best of the pundits by his patron Ṣaha Jahān, the Mughal emperor. Jagannātha, a prolific writer, critic, scholar and logician, is the author of the following works -

Rasagangādhara and Citramīmāṃsā-khaṇḍana (on poetics), 5 laharī kāvyas (poems on love and devotion), Āsafavilāsa and Prāṇābharaṇa (biographies of feudatory kings Asaf Khan and Prāṇanārāyaṇa respectively), Jagadābharaṇa (a poem in praise of Dara Sikoha, son of Ṣaha Jahān), Bhāminī-vilāsa (in four chapters -- poems on different moods and sentiments of human psychology) and Prauḍha-manoramā-kucha-mardinī (a treatise on Sanskrit grammar).

He is very proud of his own critical apparatus and scholasticism and also boasts that all the verses given as examples in his treatment on Sanskrit poetics are his own compositions, and not borrowed from others. In his two works on literary criticism, he refers to the opinions of his predecessors, specially Appayya Dikṣita, and severly criticises and refutes their views and then establishes his own. His treatment is very logical and analytical, his diction pedantic and style elegant. He is never a blind supporter of his predecessors but submits their views in a very methodical way with his own analytical approach and afterwards either accepts the essence of their theories or rejects them bluntly for the establishment of his own novel ideas.

His Citra-mīmāṃsā-khaṇḍana deals with figures of speech, but abruptly ends and remains incomplete. The title of the work clearly indicates that it is written with the purpose of refuting the views of Appayya Dikṣita's work entitled Citra-mīmāṃsā. His Rasagangādhara, a voluminous work of high merit, gives a critical and comparative study of the entire field of Sanskrit poetics. Here 70 alaṃkāras are defined, explained and illustrated. Jagannātha gives an accurate representation of the views of different schools of literary criticism. He excels in the use of the dialectical method of the modern school of Nyāya in his treatment of all the topics of the critique of literatue.

27. Alaṃkāra-kaustubha (or A Gem of Literary Criticism) : The author of this text (written in 1752 AD) is Paramānanda-dāsa-sena or popularly known as kavi-karṇapūra (ie a jewel of the poets) who was the son of Śivānanda, a direct disciple of Śricaitanya, the doyen of Bengal vaiṣṇavism and a mystic devotee of Lord Kṛṣṇa. This work divided in 10 chapters deals with the important topics of poetics. One peculiar feature of his work is that all the illustration verses are concerned with the theme of Rādhā and Kṛṣṇa. This work is of minor importance and lacks originality. For the benefit of the intelligent and inquisitive readers a brief account of the figures of speech in English is submitted below: 1. Allegory: (Greek allos other, agoreuo I speak). It is a device giving detailed description of one thing under the image of another.

eg  Out of the head I sprung. Amazement seized All the host of Heaven; back they recoiled afraid At first and call me Sin, and for a sign Portentious held me; but familiar grown I pleased, and with attractive graces won The most averse. -- Milton, Paradise Lost

2. Allusion: It denotes a passing or casual reference to an incident of the past either directly or indirectly or by implication. In Sanskrit literature, mention of allusions from the Vedic or the classical tradition is very common and popular both in prose and poetry.

eg  Now we clap/Our hands, and cry Eureka, it is clear.

3. Alliteration : It is the commencement of two or more words or a word group with the same letter or sound.

eg  Lying silent and sad in the afternoon shadows and sunshine.

4. Anadiplosis: It is repetition in the first part of a clause or sentence of a prominent word from the latter part of the preceding clause or sentence, usually with a change or extension of meaning.

eg  Having power makes it (totalitarian leadership) isolated; isolation breeds insecurity; insecurity breeds suspicion and fear; suspicion and fear breed violence. - Zibigniew K Brzeninski, The Permanent Purge, Politics in Soviet Totalitarianism

5. Anaphora (also called epanaphora): It is repetition of word or words at the beginning of two or more successive verses, clauses or sentences. eg  We shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing-grounds, we shall fight in the fields and in the streets, we shall fight in the hills. -- Winston Churchill, speech in the house of Commons, 1940

6. Anastrophe : An artful deviation from the ordinary pattern or arrangement of words is known as anastrophe.

eg  Good musicians of their type they are. Clean and neat in appearance they are. Needed, we might say, they are.

7. Anthimeria: It is to substitute one part of speech for another.

eg  The chimney smokes. He smokes the ham. He smokes. He asked for a smoke. He smoked out the thief. His dreams went up in smoke.

8. Anticlimax or Bathos: It is an expression of a sudden fall from a lofty idea to a substandard thinking that gives rise to a ludicrous sense or a ludicrous descent from the exalted or lofty to the commonplace.

eg  True Jedwood justice was dealt out to him. First came the execution, then that investigation, and last of all, the accusation.

9. Antimetabole : This figure occurs through repetition of words, in successive clauses, in reverse grammatical order.

eg  One should eat to live, not live to eat. -- Moliere, L'Avare Mankind must put an end to war -- or war will put an end to mankind. -- John F Kennedy, United Nations Speech, 1961.

10. Antithesis: (Greek anti, against, and tithemi, I place) It is the juxtaposition of contrasting ideas, often in parallel structure.

eg  It is the best of times, yet the worst of times; we live in unparalled prosperity, yet have starvation; modern science can perform miracles to save lives, yet we have war; we balance ourselves delicately on the moon, yet destroy the delicate balance of the earth. Young people search for meaning in life, yet are confused, demoralised, frustrated. -- from an article in America, Dec, 1969.

11. Aposiopesis: When there is a sudden breaking off in the midst of a sentence, as if from inability or unwillingness to proceed, it is called Aposiopesis. eg  Why urge the chase so far astray? And why so late returned? and why -The rest was in her speaking eye. -- Scott

12. Apposition: When two co-ordinate elements are placed side by side, and the second one serves as an explanation or modification of the first, it is called apposition.

eg  So, we would have gone together, the Orthodox and I.

13. Apostrophe: (Greek apo, aside and strepho, I turn; so it means a turning away) In rhetoric, it is a digression in the form of an address to someone not present, or to a presonified object or idea.

eg  Unhappy man! and must you be swept into the grave, unnoticed and unnumbered and no friendly tears be shed for your sufferings or mingled with your dust? -- Robert Hall (referring to the miseries of men wounded in war)

14. Asyndeton: It is deliberate omission of conjuctions between a series.

eg  I came, I saw, I conquered. -- Shakespeare

... that we shall pay any price, bear any burden, meet any hardship, support any friend, oppose any foe to assure the survival and the sucess of liberty. -- John F Kennedy

15. Chiasmus: It is reversal of grammatical structures in successive clauses or phrases.

eg  Beauty is truth, truth beauty. -- Keats

16. Climax (Greek klimax, a laddar) It consists of a series of related ideas so arranged that each surpasses the preceding in force or intensity.

eg  When a boy lays aside his tops, his marbles, and his bike in favour of a girl, another girl, and still another girl, he becomes a youth. When the youth discards his first girl, he becomes a bachelor. And when the bachelor can stand it no longer, he turns into a husband. -- from an article in Good Housekeeping 17. Ellipsis: It is deliberate omission of word or words (readily implied) that would complete or clarify the construction.

eg  Rape is the sexual sin of the mob, adultery of the bourgeoise, and incest of the aristocracy.

18. Epigram: (Greek epi upon, gramma a writing) In Greek and Latin it means inscription, and as a figurative use in English any witty, ingenious or pointed saying is an epigram. In Sanskrit anthologies we come across hundreds of such expressions.

eg  Speech was given to man to conceal his thoughts. -Voltaire There is pleasure in poetic pain. -- Cowper The bookful blockhead ignorantly read. -- Pope We think our fathers fool, so wise we grow, Our wiser sons, no doubt, will think so.

19. Epistrophe: It is repetition of the same word or group of words at the ends of successive clauses.

eg  To the good Americans many subjects are sacred : Sex is sacred, women are sacred, business is sacred, America is sacred, Mason lodges and college clubs are sacred. -George Santayana, Character and opinion in the United states

20. Epanalepsis: It is a variety of repetition at the end of a clause of the word that occured at the beginning of the clause.

eg  Blood hath bought blood, and blows have answer'd blows : Strength match'd with strength, and power confronted power. Shake -- Shakespeare, King John

21. Erotesis or Interrogation : It is a rhetorical question that implies a positive or negetive answer.

eg  If you prick us, do we not bleed? If you tickle us, do we not laugh? If you poison us, do we not die? And if you wrong us shall we not revenge? - Shakespeare

22. Euphemism : (Greek eu phomi meaning I speak well) It is the substitution of a mild, indirect or vague exprssion for one thought to be offensively harsh or blunt. eg  He perished on the scaffold (ie he was hanged).

23. Exclamation : It is an expression of surprise or strong emotion or contemplation which produces a profound effect.

eg  What a piece of work is man! How noble in reason! How infinite in faculties! In form and moving, how express and admirable! In action, how like an angel! In apprehension, how like a God! -- Shakespeare

24. Hendiadys or Brachylogia: It is a figure is which a complex idea is expressed by two words connected by a copulative conjuction.

eg  To look with eyes and envy (ie with envious eyes).

25. Hypallage: It is a sort of transference of epithet. Here the quality of an object is transferred to another through poetic vision.

eg  A sleepless night passed, and anxious morning slowly dawned.

26. Hyperbaton or Inversion : Rhetorically it is the use, especially for emphasis, of a word order other than the expected or the usual one.

eg  Bird thou never wert. Much have I travelled in the realms of gold. -- Keats

27. Hyperbole: (Greek hyper ballo meaning I throw beyond) It is an obvious and intentional exaggeration, an extravagant statement not to be taken literally. The corresponding figure in Sanskrit is called atiśayokti.

eg  My left leg weighs three tons. It is emblamed in spices like a mummy. I can't move. I have not moved for five thousand years. I'm of the time of pharoah. -- Thomas Baily Aldrich

28. Innuendo: It is an oblique hint or indirect intimation about a person or thing, especially of a derogatory nature. In Sanskrit, such a figure is known as vyājanindā.

eg  'Sir' said an incautious person to Johnson, 'drinking drives away care, and makes us forget whatever is disagreeable. Would you not allow man to drink for that reason?' 'Yes', was the reply, 'if he sat next to you.' 29. Irony or Paralipsis: It is use of a word in such a way as to convey a meaning opposite to the literal meaning of the word. The corresponding figure in Sanskrit is vakrokti.

eg  Certainly God did not make man and leave it to Aristotle to make him rational.-- Locke

30. Isocolon: It is similarity of both structure and length (ie the same number of words, and sometimes the same number of syllables).

eg  His purpose was to impress the ignorant, to perplex the dubious, and to confound the scrupulous.

31. Litotes: It is deliberate use of understatement.

eg  A rose by any other name will smell as sweet, but a crime, if referred to by a name that is not too patently disproportionate, may lose some of its heinousness.

32. Metaphor (Greek meta phero meaning I carry beyond) It implies close comparison between two things of unlike nature. In Sanskrit, it is known as rūpaka ie total imposition of one upon the other.

eg  The Lord is my rock and fortress. -- Book of Psalms

The tree of liberty grows when it is watered by the blood of tyrants. -- Barere

33. Metonymy: (Greek meta onoma meaning change of name) It is substitution of some attributive or suggestive word for what is actually meant.

eg  The pen is mightier than the sword.

I have nothing to offer but blood, soil, tears, and sweat. -Sir Winston Churchill.

All Arabia (ie the perfumes of Arabia) breaths from yonder box. -- Pope

34. Onomatopoeia: It is the use of a word giving its sense through the sound. In Sanskrit it is given as a variety of anuprāsa or alliteration. eg  'Tis not enough no harshness gives offense, The sound must seem an echo to the sense: Soft is the strain when Zephyr gently blows, And the smooth stream in smoother number flows. -- Pope, Essay on Criticism

35. Oxymoron: It is the yoking of two terms which are apparently self-contradictory.

eg  Here's much to do with hate, but more with love. Why then, O brawling love! O loving hate! O anything of nothing first create! O heavy lightness, serious vanity! Mishappen chaos of well seeming forms! Feather of lead, bright smoke, cold fire, sick health! Still-waking sleep, that is not what it is! This love I feel, that feel no love in this. -- Shakespeare, Romeo and Juliet

36. Parable: (Greek para ballo meaning I throw beyond) It is an allegorical story giving a lofty idea or moral. The New Testament gives a good number of popular stories containing high moral lessons. The parable of the sower is a fine example of it. In Sanskrit literature, such parables are abundant in the Upaniṣads, the Mahābhārata and specially tales and fables of the Pañcatantra.

37. Paradox: It is a poetic statement or proposition which seems self-contradictory or absurd, but in reality expresses a possible truth.

eg  Art is a form of lying in order to tell the truth. He is guilty of being innocent. -- Pablo Picasso

38. Paralipsis: It is a rhetorical expression that gives the suggestion by deliberately concise treatment of a topic, that much of significance is being omitted.

eg  I cannot delay to tell you how political quarrels might be otherwise settled. But grant that they cannot. Grant that no law of reason can be understood by nations; no law of justice submitted to by them. -- Ruskin 39. Parallelism: It is similarity of structure in a pair of series of related words, phrases or clauses.

eg  It is rather for us to be here dedicated to the great task remaining before us -- that from those honoured dead we take increased devotion to that cause for which they gave the last full measure of devotion; that we here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain; that this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom; and that government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth. -- Abraham Linchon

40. Parenthesis: It is insertion of some verbal unit in a position that interrupts the normal syntactical flow of the sentence.

eg  Any theory of post historical society -- our sense of being 'in history' is largly determined by the pressure of social and political conflicts -- will have to consider the dilemma of human motivations in the just city. -- George Steiner, Language and Silence

41. Periphrasis or antonomasia: It is a roundabout way of speaking, substitution of a descriptiive word or phrase for a proper name or of a proper name for a quality associated with the name.

eg  The cup that cheers, but not inebriates (ie a cup of tea). That orbed maiden with white fire laden (ie the moon). -- Shelley

42. Personification or prosopopoeia: It is the attribution of personal nature or character to inanimate objects or abstract notions.

eg  O eloquent, just and mighty Death! whom none could advise, thou hast persuaded; what none hath dared, thou hast done; and whom all the world has flattered, thou only hast cast out the world and despised. Thou hast drawn together all the far-stretched greatness, all the pride, cruelty, and ambition of man, and covered it all with these two narrow words, Hic jacet.

43. Polyptoton: It is repetition of words derived from the same root. eg  The Greeks are strong, and skillful to their strength. Fierce to their skill, and to their fierceness valiant. -- Shakespeare, Troilus and Cressida

44. Polysyndeton: It is the opposite of asyndeton, and we find here deliberate use of many conjunctions.

eg  Neither blindness nor gout, nor age, not penury, nor domestic affliction, nor political dissapointment, nor abuse, nor proscription, nor neglect had power to his sedate and majestic patience.

45. Prolepsis: Rhetorically prolepsis is the anticipation of possible objections in order to answer them in advance.

eg  That I say is modern war, -- scientific war, -- chemical and mechanic war, -- how much worse than the savage's poisoned arrow! And yet you will tell me, perhaps that any other war than this is impossible now. It may be so; the progress of science cannot, perhaps, be better registered than by new facilities of destruction. Yet hear, for a moment, what war was in pagan and ignorant days : -- what war might yet be if we could extinguish our science in darkness and join the heathen's practice to the Christian's creed. -- Ruskin

46. Pun: Pun is the generic name for those figures which are based on play upon words giving duplicity of sense under unity of sound. Some of its varieties are recognised by the following terms -a) Antanaclasis: It is repetition of a word in two different senses. eg  Your argument is sound, nothing but sound. b) Paronomasia: It is use of words alike in sound but different in meaning. eg  Must I be punished for every pun-I-shed? c) Syllepsis: It is use of a word understood differently in relation to two or more other words which modifies or governs.

47. Simile (Latin similis meaning like) It is an explicit statement of comparison between two or more things of unlike nature. Its corresponding figure in Sanskrit is called upamā. eg  Higher and higher / From the earth thou springest Like a cloud of fire. -- Shelley

48. Synecdoche: The figure literally means understanding of one thing for another, such as -- a part for the whole, the whole for a part, a species for the genus, the genus for a species, an individual for a class, the abstract for the concrete, the concrete for the abstract.

eg. Dust thou (ie the body) art, to dust returnest. Silver and gold I have none.

49. Vision: It draws an imaginary picture represented so vividly that it appreas, as it were, real. It has close similarity with the figure bhāvika in Sanskrit.

eg  Methinks I see in my mind a noble and puissant nation rousing herself like a strong man after sleep shaking her invincible locks. -- Milton

50. Zeugma : It is zeugma when a single verb connects two nouns though another separate verb should be there.

eg  The moment and the vessle passed. -- Tennyson ALAṂKĀRA

The Figures of Speech in Sanskrit Digitized by Google

Original from

UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN <headword> अतद्गुण </headword> अतद्गुणः Atadguṇaḥ : Non-Borrower :

It is a (< nañ negative particle corresponding to Greek a or an, Latin in or un) meaning non, not, without, lacking, tad meaing the person or the thing concerned, guna meaning accomplishment, quality or merit. So the word atadguṇa literally means non-presence or non-borrowing of someone's qualities. The figure Atadguna occurs when there is non-acceptance or dissenting of the fine elements or qualities of the superior one by the inferior one though such excellences should have been borrowed from the former by the latter. In such poetic expression, there are two components-the subject of discussion or the contextual and the related one or the non-contextual (ie upameya and the upamāna or the prakṛta and the aprakṛta or the prastuta and the aprastuta respectively), and between these two the former is represented as more qualified than the latter; but the non-referent though inferior does not assume the qualities of the superior one, even if there is every possibility of becoming so due to close association between the two.

Atadguṇa was first recognised by Mammaṭa. It is just the opposite of the figure Tadguṇa (The Borrower). But Jayaratha and his followers maintain that this figure should be included in Viśeṣokti (Peculiar Allegation) since both are based on the relation of causeand-effect. But Viśvanātha observes that it is distinct from Viśeṣokti because Atadguṇa brings out a special poetic excellence in the diction through its presentation of the idea of non-assumption of the excellences of one by the other. There is also basic difference between Atadguṇa and Viṣama since the literary quality of Viṣama is rooted on the assumption that the qualities relating to the effect (karya) are completely opposite to those of the cause (kāraṇa). This figure is based not merely on the literary merit of the expression, but on some logical approach of the idea expressed.

eg 1. ciraṃ rāgiṇi maccitte / nihito'pi na rañjasi,

चिरं रागिणि मच्चित्ते / निहितोऽपि न रञ्जसि ।

For long, my love, in my heart, though treasured Yet unto me you are not entirely enamoured. Here the lover fancifully observes that the deep attachment of the lady love does not turn to be totally absorbing. It is rather a kind of feeling on the part of the lover to find some sort of inconsistency in the attitude of the lady, though it would not have been so.

2. sadānurakte manasīha vartase tathāpi ca tvaṃ na dadhāsi raktatām. sadānuṣaktaṃ tvayi nātha kṛṣṇa he mano'pi me naiva bibhartti kṛṣṇatām.

सदानुरक्ते मनसीह वर्तसे / तथापि च त्वं न दधासि रक्तताम् ।
सदानुषक्तं त्वयि नाथ कृष्ण हे / मनोऽपि मे नैव बिभर्त्ति कृष्णताम् ॥

Though resideth in my mind That's ever engrossed in thee, Yet thou holdeth no love for me; O Krsna, my Lord, for ever my mind absorbed in thee, Assumes not the state of the Almighty.

In this poem, the devotee states that his heart is totally attached to Lord Kṛṣna; in spite of the fact, the Lord does not bestow his allencompassing love to the devotee. The mind of the devotee has been completely surrendered, but still the state of supreme godliness has not been achieved by him, though it was naturally excepted so.

Definitions

तद्रूपाननुहारश्चेदस्य तत् स्यादतद्गुणः । का. प्र. १०.२०५ सति हैतौ तद्गुणाननुहारेऽतद्गुणः । अ. स. ७४ सङ्गतान्यगुणानङ्गीकारमाहुरतद्गुणम्। च. ५.१०० सति हेतौ तद्रूपाननुहारोऽतद्गुणः कथितः । ए. ८.६५ सति हेतावसद्रूपस्वीकारः स्यादतद्गुणः । प्र. य. ८ तद्रूपाननुहारस्तु हेतौ सत्यप्यतद्गुणः । सा. १०.६० तत्संश्लिष्टमपि वस्तु यद्गुणं नाश्रयति सोऽतद्गुणः । वा.का. सङ्गतान्यगुणानंगीकारमाहुरतद्गुणम् । कु. ७७.१४४ न गृह्यते यदि गुणस्तस्य स स्यादतद्गुणः । अ. कौ. ३१४ तद् (तद्गुण)--विपर्ययोऽतद्गुणः । र. २ <headword>अतिशय </headword>

अतिशयः Atiśayaḥ : Excess :

ati śaya (√śī-a <ac) means excess, excellence, exuberance, perfection etc. When some extra-ordinary excellence of an object is expressed in a very charming way, the figure of speech is termed Atiśaya. This type of expression of superiority in terms of extraordinary quality is based neither on similitude nor on the relation of cause-and-effect pattern, but the entire idea is established on a chain system which reflects the superior quality of the following term than the preceding one. Most of the rhetoricians think that Atiśaya should not be treated as a separate figure since it is a case of either Atyukti (Exaggeration) or Atiśayokti (Hyperbole). Atiśaya has been recognised by a few rhetoricians.

eg 1. yadi daivataṃ prasannaṃ mā <flag>kārṣirmama </flag>mānuṣe janma. atha janma mā premātha prema mā jane durlabhe.

यदि दैवतं प्रसन्नं मा काषीर्मम मानुषे जन्म ।
अथ जन्म मा प्रेमाथ प्रेम मा जने दुर्लभे ॥

If God be pleased unto me, Let me be not born as human progeny; Or if at all I be born there over and above Let me be devoid of the sentiment of love; Still if I be in love with any man Let him not be difficult to attain..

Here the complete statement of the lady is based on the condition of if (yadi) and otherwise (atha). All conditions set on a chain pattern (firstly 'favour of God', secondly 'non-birth as a human being', thirdly 'to be born as a human being', fourthly 'non-love', fifthly 'love' and finally 'love of a man' signify the superiority of the condition of each 'following one' than the 'preceding one'.

Definitions

वस्तूनां वक्तुमुत्कर्षमसम्भाव्यं यदुच्यते । वदन्त्यतिशयाख्यं तमलंकारं वुधा यथा ॥ <headword> अतिशयोक्ति </headword>

अतिशयोक्तिः Atiśayoktiḥ : Hyperbole :

It is ati śaya ukti (ukli √vac kti < ktin). The word atiśaya means excess, exaggeration, pre-eminence, surpassing, extra-ordinary, par excellence etc; ukti means statement, expression, idea, (Greek hyper beyond, ballo I throw). Therefore, atiśayokti means a bold exaggeration, an over-statement of facts, an elegant straining of the truth, surpassing of the matter-offact description. Rhetorically Atiśayokti occurs if and when the object of description (ie upameya) is completely swallowed up by another object (ie upamāna or non-referent which is superimposed on the referent) and as a result, complete identification of the latter upon the former is apprehended.

This kind of figurative expression is found to be very common to all languages. In Sanskrit rhetoric, Atiśayokti has been recommended as one of the three principal types of poetic diction, namely-(a) svabhāvokti (natural statement), (b) vakrokti (metaphoric statement) and (c) atiśayokti (hyperbolic statement). In such artistic device of language, rhetorically known as Atiśayokti, a poet intends to express or signify some extra-ordinary feature of an object, and it is due to some refinement of the poet's imaginative faculty which excels in superseding the matter-of-fact aspect of a thing. Daṇḍin regards it as the finest of all figures of speech, while Kuntaka recognises it as the soul of all figurative expression and remarks that, in such poetic observation, the aesthetic quality of the literary meaning is sublimely raised to the state of perfection through artistic contemplation. This figure is based on introsusception (adhyavasāna) which happens in two ways: (i) firstly an object appears to be swallowed up by another and (ii) secondly an object seems, as it were, swallowed up by another. This process of introsusception is slightly different from superimposition (āropa) which is the basis of the figure Rūpaka (Metaphor). Ancient Indian poetics observed that this poetic device is a statement per excellence about the qualities or actions of objects in a refined way and it is one of the artistic refinements of language. Most of the rhetors have recognised the present figure by the name Atiśayokti while a few (like Jayadeva and Appayya called Atiśaya or Atyukti. Ātyantātiśayokti and Ākramātiśayokti are not different from Atiśayokti:

Two broad divisions of this figure are as follows: (i)  one based on the idea of similitude and (ii) the other based on the sequence of cause-and-effect relation.

There are five subdivisions of these two classes mentioned above: (i) denial of difference (bheda) between the two when there is acutal difference, (ii) statement of difference even when there is no difference, (iii) vice versa and (iv) reverse of the cause-and-effect order

eg 1. sahādhara-dalenāsyā/yauvane rāgabhāk priyaḥ सहाधरदलेनास्या / यौवने रागभाक् प्रियः ।

By the passion of love her young lover is tinged afresh Along with her petal lips crimsoned in youthfulness.

Here the poet states how the lover has become attracted to the youthful charms of the beloved girl. The word raga meaning attachment and redness is applicable to both the young lover as well as the crimson petal-lips of the youthful maiden. So the statement is based on similitude and it is a denial of difference between the two (ie the lover and the lips) when there is actual difference.

2. asyāḥ sargavidhau prjāpatir abhūccandro nu kāntipradaḥ śrngāraikarasaḥ svayaṃ nu madano māso nu puṣpākaraḥ. vedābhyāsa-jaḍaḥ kathaṃ nu viṣaya-vyāvṛtta-kautūhalo nirmātuṃ prabhaven manoharam idam rūpaṃ purāṇo muniḥ.

अस्याः सर्गविधौ प्रजापतिरभूच्चन्द्रो नु कान्तिप्रदः
शृंगारैकरसः स्वयं नु मदनो मासो नु पुष्पाकरः ।
वोदाभ्यासजडः कथं नु विषयव्यावृत्त-कौतूहलो
निर्मातुं प्रभवेन् मनोहरमिदं रूपं पुराणो मुनिः ॥

Was it God, the creator, who created her! Was it moon, the beauty-bestower! Was it Cupid himself, Love incarnate! Or the month of spring to rejuvenate! How could it be the ancient saint, The bookful blockhead, turned indifferent --To all mundane pleasure, Who can create such a beautiful figure!

Here the poet fancifully observes various alternatives about the creation of the perfectly beautiful figure of the heroine. He thinks over different alternatives--the creator, the moon, Madana (the God of love) or the month of spring--out of these someone must have created the feminine figure. According to the scriptures, the supreme God creates all things of the universe; but to the present poet, this God cannot be able to create such an exquisite beauty because he is devoid of all romantic feelings about the things of beauty, specially the beauty of the human feminine, due to his close association with stern rules and regulations against the objects of worldly enjoyment.

This figurative statement is a case of negation of mutual relation though there is relation.

Definitions

प्रोक्ता चातिशयोक्तिस्तु ह्यतुलैरुपमागुणै। वि. १४.१० विवक्षा या विशेषस्य लोकसीमातिवर्तिनी । असावतिशयोक्तिः स्यादलंकारोत्तमा यथा ॥ का. २|२१४ निमित्ततो वचो यत्तु लोकातिक्रान्तगोचरम् । मन्यतेऽतिशयोक्तिं तामलंकारतया यथा ॥ भा. का. २.८१ निमित्ततो यत्तु वचो लोकातिक्रान्तगोचरम् । मत्यन्तेऽतिशयोक्तिं तामलंकारतया बुघाः ॥ अ.सं. ३४ संभाव्यधर्मतदुत्कर्षकल्पनातिशयोक्तिः । का. सू. ४.३.२० लोकसीमानिवृत्तस्य वस्तुधर्मस्य कीर्तनम् । भवेदतिशयो नाम ॥ अ. ३४४|२४ अप्रस्तुतोऽपि विच्छित्तिं प्रस्तुतस्यावतारयन् । पदार्थो वाथ वाक्यार्थः प्राप्यते वर्णनीयताम् ॥ यत्र तत्साम्यमाश्रित्य संबन्धान्तरमेव वा । अप्रस्तुतप्रशंसेति कथितासावलंकृतिः ॥ यस्यामतिशः कोऽपि विच्छित्त्या प्रतिपाद्यते । वर्णनीयस्य धर्माणां तद्विदाह्लाददायिनाम् ॥ व ३.२२५--२६.३३ विवक्षा या विशेषस्य लोकसीमातिवर्तिनी । असावतिशयोक्तिः ॥ स. ४१८१ विशेषविवक्षया लोकवृत्तानतिक्रमेणात्युक्तेरभिधानम् अतिशयः शृ. १० निगीर्याध्यवसानं तु प्रकृतस्य च कल्पनम् कार्यकारणयोर्यश्च पौर्वापर्यविपर्ययः विज्ञेयातिशयोक्तिः सा । का. प्र. १०.१५३ कार्यकारणयोः समकालत्वे पौवपिर्यविपर्यये चातिशयोक्तिः । अ. स. ४४ अध्यवसितप्राधान्ये त्वतिशयोक्तिः । अ. स. २३ वस्तुनो वक्तुमुत्कर्षमसम्भाव्यं यद्युच्यते । वदन्त्यतिशयाख्यं तमलंकारं बुधा यथा ॥ वा. ४.१०२ विशेषविवक्षया भेदाभेदयोगायोगव्यत्ययोऽतिशयोक्तिः । है. का. ६.२० आक्रमातिशयोक्तिश्चेद् युगपत्कार्यकारणे । अत्यन्तातिशयोक्तिस्तत्पौर्वापर्यव्यतिकमे । भेदकातिशयोक्तिश्चेदेकस्यैवान्यतोच्यते । रूपकातिशयोक्तिश्चेद्रूप्यं रूपकमध्यगम्। च. ५.४२-४४ अघ्यवसितिसिद्धत्वं प्रकृतस्यान्यत्वकल्पनं यद्वा । संबन्धासंबन्धौ तद्वत्यासे भवेदतिशयोक्तिः ॥ ए. ८.२३ अनयोः समसमयत्वे पौर्वापर्यस्य वा विपर्यासे । कार्याशुभावगमिका द्विविधातिशयोक्तिराख्याता ॥ ए. ८.३७ विषयस्यानुपादानाद्विषय्युपनिबध्यते । यत्र सातिशयोक्तिः स्यात् कविप्रौढोक्तिजीविता ॥ प्र.य. ८ कार्यकारणयोः पौर्वापर्यविपर्ययरूपातिशयोक्तिः प्र. य. ८ सिध्यत्वेऽध्यवसायस्यातिशयोक्तिर्निगद्यते । सा. १०.४६ । अत्युक्तिरतिशयोक्तिः । वा. का. ७ विषयस्यानुपादानाद्विषय्युपनिबध्यते । यत्र सातिशयोक्तिः स्यात् कविप्रौढोक्तिजीविता । चि. रूपकातिशयोक्तिः स्यान्निगीर्याध्यवसानतः । कु. १ । ३३६ निगीर्णस्योपमानेनोपमेयस्य निरूपणम् । यत् स्यादतिशयोक्तिः । अ.कौ. ८.२५७ विषयिणा विषयस्य निगरणमतिशयोक्तिः । र. २ अप्रकृतेन निगीर्णे साध्यवसानाश्रयात् प्रकृते । प्रकृतस्यान्यथात्वोक्तौ यद्यैवं स्यात्तथापत्तौ ॥ स्याज्जन्यजनकपौर्वापर्यत्यागश्च सा त्वतिशयोक्तिः ॥ अ. कौ. २६

<headword>अत्युक्ति</headword> अत्युक्तिः Atyuktiḥ : Exaggeration :

This is ati ukti (√vac kti < ktin). The prefix ati means very, too, very much, exceedingly, excessively (with adjectives and adverbs) and with verbs it means over, beyond etc; ukti is statement or expression. So the figure Atyukti is an exaggerated statement about commendable things (like heroic achievements, uncommon qualities, noble virtues or exaltation of someone or something in any form through fanciful over-estimation. Though the terms atyukti and atiśayokti give the same meaning yet these two figures are different in con-tention. But it has to be admitted that unlike Atyukti the scope of Atiśayokti is very wide. So Atyukti has been admitted by a few only and most of the scholars consider it as a variety of Atiśayokti.

eg 1. tvayi dātari rājendra / yācakāḥ kalpaśākhinaḥ. त्वयि दातरि राजेन्द्र / याचकाः कल्पशाखिनः ।

O king of kings, you being the donor Innumerable are the petitioners.

The verse acclaims the bounty of the great king with much exaggeration.

Definitions अत्युक्तिरद्भुतातथ्यशौर्यादिवर्णनम् । च. ५.२२२, कु. ६३.२६३

अधिकम् Adhikam : Exceeding :

adhi ka literally means more, additional, surpassing, excessive, redundant, abundant etc. The figure Adhika occurs under the following conditions: (i) between two objects (ie ādhāra and ādheya or the container and the contained) one surpasses the other in volume, (ii) a cause produces effects which are basically opposite to each other or which give rise to things from which mutually opposite actions are found to emerge.

It should be noted that the statement of the excess or surpassing of one by the other (as portrayed in the figure) is not a matter of fact reality but happens due to poetic fancy through which some sort of excellence is added to the object of description.Adhika was first recognised by Rudrata and subsequently discussed by Mammaṭa, Jayadeva, Vidyānātha, Appayya and Jagannātha. But Bhoja observes that it is in no way different from Virodha, (Contradiction) and he includes Adhika, Viṣama and Asangati in Virodha. Visvanātha tries to establish slight difference between Adhika and Viṣama . He observes that the present figure differs from Viṣama on the consideration that in the former two things though mutually related differ widely while, in the latter, the things are independent and incongrous.

eg 1. giram aviṣayo rājan/vistāras tava cetasaḥ
sāvakāśatayā yatra/ śete viśvāśrayo hariḥ.
गिरामविषयो राजन् / विस्तारस्तव चेतसः ।
सावकाशतया यत्र / शेते विश्वाश्रयो हरिः ॥

O King, the expanse of thy mind is beyond description even; Having full space Hari, the resort of the universe, lies therein.

Here the king has been eulogised for the magnification of his heart where even the Lord, the omnipresent, the all-pervading, has got his resort. In comparison to the vastnees of the Almighty the heart of a human being (here the king) is quite insignificantly small. But the poet, in order to magnify the greatness of the king's heart, fancifully glorifies it in this way. Definitions

यत्रान्योन्यविरुद्धं विरुद्धबलवत्कियाप्रसिद्धं वा । वस्तुद्वयमेकस्माज्जायते इति तद्भवेदधिकम् ॥ यत्राधारे सुमहत्याधेयमवस्थितं तनीयोऽपि । अतिरिच्येत कथंचित्तदधिकमपरं परिज्ञेयम् ॥ रु.का. ६.२६, २८ महतोर्यन्महीयांशावाश्रिताश्रययोः क्रमात् । आश्रयाश्रयिणौ स्यातां तनुत्वेऽप्यधिकं तत् ॥ का. प्र. १०.१६५ आश्रयाश्रयिणोरननुरूप्यमधिकम् । अ. स. ४६ अधिकं बोध्यमाधारादाधेयाधिकवर्णनम् । च. ५.८१ अधिकमिदं गदितं तद्यरूननुत्रपताश्रयाश्रयिणोः । ए.८.४० आधाराधेययोरानुरूप्याभावेऽधिको मतः । प्र.य. ८ आश्रयाश्रयिणोरेकस्याधिक्येऽधिकमुच्यते । सा. १० आधारादाधेयस्याधिक्येऽधिकम् । वा. का. ३ अधिकं पृथुलाधारादाधेयाधिक्यवर्णनम् । कु. ६५ आधाराधेययोर्भूम्नोर्मिथस्तत्प्रतियोगिनी । ततोऽप्यधिकभूमानौ स्यातां तदधिकं भवेत् ॥ अ. कौ. ८.३०४ आधारस्याधेयादाधेस्यापि वाधारात् । यदि वर्ण्यते महत्त्वं तत्कथयन्त्यधिकमभिज्ञाः ॥ अ. कौ. ५५

<headword>अनन्वय</headword>

अनन्वयः Ananvayah : Self-comparison :

a (< nañ negative), anvaya (anu √i ac aya) relation. So the word ananvaya means non-relation or unrelated. The figure Ananvaya is a kind of poetic comparison between two where the object of description is represented as unparalleled, matchless or peerless, so it is compared to itself and none else; or simply the same object is represented as both upameya and upamāna (ie the object of comparison and the standard of comparison). The idea behind such poetic comparison is that the object of description is so much qualified or unique that it cannot be compared to any other thing in the world.

The name of this figure itself speaks of its meaning. Here the absence of the object of comparison (upamāna) is not real but only a kind of poetic fancy. Daṇḍin refers to one of the varieties of Upamā (Simile) as Ananvaya-upamā which is no other than the present Ananvaya. Bhoja calls it sama upamā; some other rhetoricians also accept it as a variety of Upamā. It was first introduced by Bhāmaha and then accepted by many of the later scholars. Selfcomparison is a very common device of poetic expression which reflects the uncommon or matchless quality of a thing seen through poet's vision. Appayya explains that the same object being the upameya and the upamāna should be considered as different on the merit of difference in time, space and action.

Expressions such as a man-like man (पुरुषः पुरुषः यथा) or the fight between Rāma and Rāvaṇa can be compared to the fight between Rāma and Rāvaṇa or in English, a lady-like lady can be treated as examples of Ananvaya. In all these cases, the same thing is interpreted differently for the sake of giving it an extra-ordinary implication

eg 1.
tvanmukhaṃ tvanmukham iva / tvad dṛśau tvad dṛśāviva
tvan mūrtir iva mūrtiste / tvam iva tvaṃ kṛśodari.
त्वन्मुखं त्वन्मुखमिव / त्वद्दृशौ त्वदृशाविव ।
त्वन्मूर्तिरिव मूर्तिस्ते / त्वमिव त्वं कृशोदरि ॥

Thy face with thy face vies, Thy eyes compare to thy eyes, Thy figure compares to thy figure You are, O slender-waisted one, as you are.

Definitions

विना तया स्यादुपमा तु यत्र तेनैव तस्यैवं भवेन्नृप । अनन्वयाख्यं कथितं पुराणैः ॥ वि. १४.१५ यत्र तेनैव तस्य स्यादुपमानोपमेयता । असादृश्यविवक्षातस्तमित्याहुरनन्वयम् ॥ भा. का. ३.४५; अ. सं. ६.४ एकस्योपमेयोपमानत्वेऽनन्वयः । का. सू. ४।३।१४ कल्पितोपमया तुल्यं कवयोऽनन्वयं विदुः । व. ३.४२ उपमानोपमेयत्वे एकस्यैवैकवाक्यगे । अनन्वयः । का. प्र. १०.२३५ एकस्यैवोपमानोपमेयत्वेऽनन्वयः । अ. स. १३; वा. का. ७; चि. मा. उपमानोपमेयत्वे यत्रैकस्येव जाग्रतः । इन्दुरिन्दुरिवेत्यादौ भवेदेवमनन्वयः ॥ च. ५.१२ अनुगतिरूपमङ्गानामेकस्मिन्नेव जायते वाक्ये । यद्येकस्य तदानीमन्वर्थोऽनन्वयः कथितः ॥ ए. ८.४ एकस्यैवोमानोपमेयत्वेऽनन्वयो मतः । प्र. य. ८ उपमानोपमेयत्वमेकस्यैव त्वनन्वयः । सा. १० द्वितीयसदृशव्यवच्छेदफलकवर्णनविषयीभूतं यदेकोपमानोपमेयकं सादृश्यं तदनन्वयः ॥ र. २ यत्रैकावच्छिन्ने स्तामुपमानोपमेयत्वे । अन्यसदृशं निषेद्धं तमनन्वयसंज्ञमाचख्युः । अ-कौ. १६

<headword>अनुकूल</headword>

अनुकूलम् Anukūlam : The Agreeable :

anu favourable, kūla bank, anukūla literally means following the bank, and by extension the word connotes favourable, agreeable, faithful, suitable, befitting etc. Anukūla is a figure where something unfavourable is redeemed favourable. Such agreeableness is to be poetically represented in a very charming way.

This figure is recognised only by Visvanātha who argues that such poetic expression adds special beauty to the diction. But if this logic is accepted then there would be innumerable new figures.

eg 1. kupitāsi yadā tanvi / nidhāya karaja-kṣatam. badhāna bhuja-pāśābhyāṃ / kaṇṭham asya dṛḍhaṃ tadā.

कुपितासि यदा तन्वि / निधाय करजक्षतम् ।
बधान भुजपाशाभ्यां / कण्ठमस्य दृढं तदा ॥

O beauty of slender frame, displeased as you are Then by nail-marks wound thy lover; Cling to his neck firmly thereby Making your (tender) arms a tie.

Here someone requests the impertinent lady to embrace her lover closely and to cling to the neck firmly and to scratch even in her fierce passion of love. Though these actions on the part of the lady towards her lover are unfavourable yet during the moment of passionate enjoyments all such would turn favourable. But such a statement or poetic expression does not signify any special value of diction and it is due to this reason that Anukūla has been rejected by others.

Definitions

अनुकूलं प्रातिकूल्यमनुकूलानुबन्धि चेत् । सा. १०.६३

<headword>अनुगुण</headword>

अनुगुणः  Anuguṇaḥ : Equal :

anu guṇa means having similar qualities. As a figure of speech it is a kind of literary expression about-(i) the improvement of one's own qualities at the contact of others or (ii) the appreciation of the qualities of an object getting excessively manifested at the contact of others.

It is one of the uncommon figures and recognised by a few (like Jagannātha and Appayya).

eg 1. karṇotpalāni dadhate katākṣairapi nīlatām. कर्णोत्पलानि दधते कटाक्षैरपि नीलताम् । (Thy) ear-lotuses assume dark-blue Even by thy side-glances in glow.

Definitions

प्राक्सिद्धस्वगुणोत्कर्षोऽनुगुणः परसन्निधेः । च. ५.१०१; कु. ६८.१४५

<headword>अनुज्ञा</headword>

अनुज्ञा Anujñā : Commission :

anu √jñā an ā literally means consent, sanction, permission etc. As a figure of speech it occurs when even the demerits of someone are welcome on the commission of merits. Though an uncommon figure it is recognised by Jagannātha and Appayya.

eg 1. vipadaḥ santu naḥ śaśvad / yasu saṃkirtyate hariḥ. विपदः सन्तु नः शश्वद् / यासु संकीर्त्यते हरिः । Let there be calamities for us throughout the life So that Lord Hari might be remembered in strife. 2. pranipatya vidhe bhavantam addhā vinibaddhāñjalir ekameva yāce. janir astu kule kṛṣībalānām api govinda-padāravindabhājām. प्रणिपत्य विधे भवन्तमद्धा । विनिबद्धाञ्जलिरेकमेव याचे । जनिरस्तु कुले कृषीबलानामपि गोविन्दपदारविन्दभाजाम् ॥ O Lord, bending down before thee, With folded hands, I beg only one thing for me -May I be born again in the line of the farmers Who adore the lotus-feet of the Almighty.

Here in the same vein the devotee expresses his cherished hope before the Almighty for his favour by granting him rebirth in the line of the cultivators so that he might be able to adore Him as his family deity. Therefore, to him a rebirth, even in a not so reputed family, is welcome for the sake of God's grace which, it is traditionally believed, always flows towards the poor and downtrodden unconditionally.

Definitions

दोषस्याभ्यर्थनानुज्ञा गुणदर्शनात् । कु. १७७ उत्कटगुणविशेषलालसया दोषत्वेन प्रसिद्धस्यापि वस्तुनः प्रार्थनमनुज्ञा । र. २

<headword>अनुप्रास</headword>

अनुप्रासः Anuprāsaḥ : Alliteration :

anu prāsa means repeated occurence, therefore, Anuprāsa, as a figure of speech, denotes repetition or recurrence of one or more than one consonantal syllable or sound. Anuprāsa is basically harmonious concordance of consonantal sound; such concordance of vowel and consonantal sound is Yamaka and when it is total concordance, it is Yamaka, but when it is partial, it is Anuprāsa. Repetition of vowels is not treated as Anuprāsa because such repetition does not produce harmonious sound effect as consonant or consonant clusters do. Repetition of consonants, however, means notable sound-effect of consonants matched with vowels or consonantvowel groups. So repetition may occur with one consonant or consonant groups, phrases, sentences or group of sentences. Alliterative consonant or consonant-vowel combinations are used in initial, middle or final position. But recurrence of the same consonant should occur at short intervals. Consonants having the same place of pronunciation being repeatedly used are also considered as Alliteration. Repetition of the same vowel without consonant in any position is not recognised as Alliteration since such recurrence cannot produce any pleasing, sonorous and harmonious soundeffect, rather it creates dullness and monotony. Poets always try to observe the natural rhythms, cadence and musical accents in poetry. Sanskrit rhetoricians have observed that such recurrence always produces a musical lulling effect and sensuous pleasure to the hearer and this artistic effect should be in complaince with the aesthetic value of poetry. Anuprāsa has been recognised by almost all rhetoricians (except a few like Bharata, Kuntaka, Vāgbhaṭa and Appayya). Repetition of consonant, consonant-vowel combinations, words, phrases or entire foot is one of the special devices of poetry.

Repetition of sound, syllable, word, poetic foot, stanza or a metrical pattern gives a poem special charm. Arrangement of sounds or words is practised for swing and cadence in metrical setting for creating musical effect or refinement in meaning. Phonetic quality of similar sound is also very effective in alliterative pattern. In sanskrit metrical pattern, Anuprasa (Alliteration) and Yamaka (Chime) have been cultured as a unique device by the poets. Repetition has a very close link with metre, with phonetic or linguistic pattern, with syntactical structure and in expression of strong and favourable emotion. Repetition in metrical pattern may occur in the beginning, in the middle or in the end. Sanskrit metrics is basically regulated by number of syllables and their phonetic quality of short and long vowels, though there are some metrical patterns regulated by mātrā (ie mora).

Alliteration is a very common and popular feature in classical Sanskrit poetry. In Vedic poetry, alliteration is not rare, specially the repetition of a metrical foot used as a refrain is found to be very popular in individual and group chanting. In musical verse, refrain is the most common feature. In popular and folk poetry as well as in religions poetry too, in charms, chants and spells, special types of alliterative patterns are abundant and specially attractive for their musical rhyme and swing.

In sanskrit poetry, Anuprāsa is quite natural and spontaneous for its phonetic variety and grammatical structure, and at the same time, it is also a fashionable device full of grace and exuberance. From the time of Asvaghosa poets of all ranks paid special attention to alaṃkāras, and after Kalidāsa some renowned writers, specially the epic poets laid too much emphasis on some rhetorical forms, and in such artificial poetry the application of Anuprāsa and Yamaka have been abundant and put in such a fashionable way that these poems have become most unattractive to the average reader and most abstruse and ambiguous even to the pedagogues who had to take the aid of commentaries in order to find out the proper syntax and the complete meaning of the verse or the prose.

Like Yamaka Anuprāsa has so many divisions and sub-divisions : (i) Alliteration produced by syllables (varṇa) (ii) Alliteration produced by word (śabda) Varṇa-anuprāsa is either cheka or vṛtti.

Cheka signifies the special alliterative pattern appreciated by scholars and poets, Vṛtti is congenial to Rasa (aesthetic quality).

Bhoja classifies it thus:

Alliteration of syllables (varṇa), consonants having the same place of articulation (sthāna), of words (pada), of phrases of measured distance, of harmonious sounds (vṛtti) and of melodious sounds (śruti).

Bhoja also refers to another class of divisions : grāmya, nāgara and upanāgara (rustic, cultured and semi-cultured). Grāmya is either sonorous (masṛṇa) or hard (utkṭa)

The śruti variety may be either śuddha, saṃkīrṇa and nāgara (pure, mixed and refined) The vṛtti variety may be either upnāgara, paruṣa and komala (semi-refined, hard and soft). Varṇa-anuprāsa may be classified as mithuna (pair), veṇika (cluster), citra (mixed) and vicitra (harmonious)

Gramya is either masṛna or utkaṭa (soft or hard) All the varieties mentioned above may again be divided into three groups: (i) based on sound (soft, medium and hard), (ii) based on the position of words and structure of sentences, (iii) based on phonetically identical letters (as classified by grammarians such as voiced and unvoiced, aspirates and non-aspirates, surds and sonants etc. In ancient Greek rhetoric followed by Latin, different varieties of this pattern are known as alliteratio, paromoeon, polytopon, lannomination or homoeoteleuton.

eg 1. Soft Alliteration (with 1 sound) lalita-lavanga-latā-pariśīlana-komala-malaya-samīre ललित-लवङ्ग-लता-परिशीलन-कोमल-मलय-समीरे In the cool southern breeze coming through the tender lavanga creepers ...

2. Alliteration with repetition of words: sarvaṃ duḥkhaṃ duḥkhaṃ, sarvaṃ kṣaṇikaṃ ksaṇikam, sarvaṃ śūnyaṃ śūnyam. सर्वं दुःखं दुःखम्, सर्वं क्षणिकं क्षणिकम्, सर्वं शून्यं शून्यम् । Everything is but sorrowful, everything transient, everything void.

3. Mixed Alliteration: manda-mandam-uditaḥ prayayau khaṃ bhīta-bhīta iva śīta-mayūkhaḥ मन्दमन्दमुदितः प्रययौ खं भीतभीत इव शीतमयूखः । The cool-beamed moon slowly and slowly rose and spread over the sky as if freightened and freightened.

Some other example of different varieties of anuprāsa: i) anuprāsa based on syllables (Varṇa anuprāsa) : प्रणवः प्रवणो यथा प्रथमः प्रमथेषु यः । praṇavaḥ pravaṇo yathā prathamaḥ pramatheṣu yaḥ. ii) based on entire meaning (artha anuprāsa) : चन्दनं खलु गोबिन्दचरणद्वन्द्ववन्दयम् । candanaṃ khalu govinda-caraṇa-dvandva-vandayam. iii) polished alliteration (cheka anuprāsa) : अयमेति मन्दमन्दं कावेरीवारी-पावनः पवनः । ayam eti manda-mandaṃ kāverī-varī-pāvanaḥ pavanaḥ. iv) based on repetitive words (nāma dvirukti) : शैले शैले न माणिक्यं मौक्तिकं न गजे गजे। śaile śaile na māṇikyaṃ mauktikaṃ na gaje gaje. v) based on syllables having same place of articulation (śruti anuprāsa) : स्थिताः क्षणं पक्ष्मसु ताडिताधराः पयोधरोत्सेधनिपात-चूर्णिताः । sthitāḥ kṣaṇaṃ paksmasu tāḍitādharāḥ payodharotsedha-nipāta-cūrnitāḥ. vi) based on style (Vitti anuprāsa) : शिञ्जान-मञ्जु-मञ्जीराश् चारुकांचनकांचयः । śiñjāna-mañju-mañjīrāś cāru-kāñcana-kañcayaḥ

Definitions

एकैकस्य तु वर्णस्य विन्यासो यः पुनः पुनः । अर्थगत्या तु संख्यातमनुप्रासं पुरातनैः ॥ वि. ३.१७।१ सरूपवर्णविन्यासमनुप्रासं प्रचक्षते । भा. का. २.५ सरूपव्यञ्जनन्यासम् ..... अनुप्रासमुशन्ति कवयः । अ. सं. १.७ शेषः सरूपोऽनुप्रासः । का. सू. ४.१.८ एकद्वित्रान्तरितं व्यञ्जनमविवक्षितस्वरं बहुशः । आवर्त्यते निरन्तरमथवा यदसावनुप्रासः । रु. का. २.१८ वर्णानामतिदूरान्तरमावृत्तिरनुप्रासः । शृ. १० आवृत्तिर्या तु वर्णानां नातिदूरान्तरस्थिता । अलंकारः स विद्वद्भिरनुप्रासः प्रदर्श्यते ॥ स. वर्णसाम्यमनुप्रासः । काः प्रा. ६.२०४, अ. शे. ४.१ व्यञ्जनस्यावृत्तिरनुप्रासः । हे. का. ५.१ अनुप्रासः शब्दसाम्यं वैषम्येऽपि स्वरस्य यत् । सा. १०.३ अनुप्रास्यत इत्यर्थेऽनुप्रासो वर्णसाम्यतः । अ. कौ. ७.१६६ <headword>अनुमान</headword>

अनुमानम् Anumānam : Poetical Inference :

The word anumāna (anu √mā ana <anat) means an inference, conclusion, reasoning, guess, conjecture etc. In Nyaya system of philosophy, it is one of the four means of obtaining knowledge (ie pratyakṣa, anumāna, upamāna and śābda).

In logical inference knowledge about something is obtained through the knowledge of some other thing which is connected with the former by any kind of mutual relation, for example, presence of fire is inferred from the sight of smoke. Needless to say that any logical inference does not come under the perview of this figure. As a figure of speech anumāna is a kind of poetic inference established by proof expressed in a striking manner by the poet. This figure was first conceived by Rudraṭa and recognised by most of the rhetoricians. Anumāna is basically different from Arthāntaranyāsa (Corroboration) and Kāvyalinga (Poetical Cause).

eg 1. asti kiñcid yadanayā / māṃ vilokya smitaṃ manāk. अस्ति किंचिद् यदनया / मां विलोक्य स्मितं मनाक् । There is something in her heart Because looking at me she smiled apart.

Definitions

हेतोः साध्यावगमेऽनुमानम् । का. ६।२३ यत्र बलीयः कारणमालोक्याभूतमेव भूतमिति । भावीति वा तथान्यत् कथ्यते तदन्यदनुमानम् ॥ रुका. ७.५६, ५६ वस्तु परोक्षं यस्मिन् साध्यमुपन्यस्य साधकं तस्य । पुनरन्यदुपन्यस्येद्विपरीतं चैतदनुमानम् ॥ लिङ्गदर्शनाल्लिङ्गिज्ञानमनुमानम् । स्रृ. १० अनुमानं तदुक्तं यत् साध्यसाधनयोर्वचः । का. प्र. १०.११७ साध्यसाधननिर्देशोऽनुमानम् । अ. स. ५६ प्रत्यक्षाल्लिङ्गतो यत्र कालत्रितयवर्तिनः । लिङ्गिनो भवति ज्ञानमनुमानं तदुच्यते ॥ वा. ४.१३८ हेतोः साध्यावगमोऽनुमानम् । हे. का. ६।२३ अनुमानं च कार्यादेः कारणाद्यवधारणम् । च. ५.३६ अनुमतमनुमानमिदं यत्र स्तः साध्यसाधने कथिते । ए. ८ साध्यसाधननिर्देशस्त्वनुमानमुदीर्यते । प्र. य. ४४७ अनुमानं तु विच्छित्या ज्ञानं साध्यस्य साधनात् । सा. १० हेतोरर्थप्रतीतिरनुमानम् । वा. का. ६ साध्यसाधनसद्भावेऽनुमानमनुमानवत् । अ. कौ. ८.२६० अनुमितिकरणमनुमानम् । र. २

<headword>अन्यदेशत्व</headword>

अन्यदेशत्वम् Anyadeśatvam : Dislocation :

It is an uncommon figure which is not different from Vibhāvanā and Viśeṣokti. It is anya deśa (tva) 'the state of different location.' When the cause and effect are found to be in separate location or one type of cause gives another type of effect or the causal agent and the actual doer undergo different types of action, it is Anyadesatva. (For example see Vibhāvanā or Viśeṣokti)

Definitions

प्रयोज्यप्रयोजकयोर्वैयधिकरण्यमन्यदेशत्वम् । अ. शे. ४.४

<headword>अन्योन्य</headword>

अन्योन्यम् Anyonyam: Reciprocal :

anya anya literally means mutual, reciprocal, between each other. When two objects reciprocally act on each other, the figure is called Anyonya. Such figurative expression is based on matter-of-fact logical relation (loka-nyāya). Here the two propositions (ie prastuta and aprastuta) based on the relation of similitude become mutually highlighted by a single action and their reciprocal relation signifies some kind of qualitative upgrading for both of them.

eg 1. tvayā sā śobhate tanvī taya tvamapi śobhase. rajanyā śobhate candraśaḥ candrenāpi niśithinī. त्वया सा शोभते तन्वी / तया त्वमपि शोभसे । रजन्या शोभते चन्द्रशः / चन्देणापि निशिथिनी ॥ The slender beauty shines by thee Thou too shineth in her company; The night shines by moon-light And by the moon also shines the night. Here the two statements are mutually dependent on each other and based on similitude. The lady and her lover in their company shine forth, in the same way the night (ie niśithinī which is in feminine gender) along with the moon (ie candra which is in masculine gender) shines brightly. The moon and the night are signified as a pair like human male and female. Both the pairs have been connected by the single action śobhate (shines).

Definitions

यत्र परस्परमेकः कारकभावोऽभिधेययोः क्रियया । संजायते स्फारिततत्त्वविशेषस्तदन्योन्यम् ॥ रु. का. अन्योन्यमुपकारो यस्तदन्योन्यम् । स. ३.२६ परस्परमुपकार्योपकारकादिभावोऽन्योन्यम् । श्रृ. १० क्रियया तु परस्परं वस्तुनोऽर्जनेनान्योन्यम् । का. प्र. १०.१८७ परस्परं क्रियाजननेऽन्योन्यम् । अ. स. १० अन्योन्यं नाम यत्र स्यादुपकारः परस्परम् । च. ५.८२ भवति क्रियोपजननं यद्यन्योन्यं तदाऽन्योन्यम् । ए.८.४० तदन्योन्यं मिथो यत्रोत्पाद्योत्पादकता भवेत् । प्र. य. ८ अन्योन्यमुभयोरेकक्रियायाः कारणं मिथः । सा. १०.७२ यत्र क्रियायाः परस्परं कार्यकारित्वं तदन्योन्यम् । वा. का. ३ अन्योन्यं नाम यत्र स्यादुपकारः परस्परम् । कु. ६८ क्रिययाऽन्योन्यकारणं वस्तुद्वयं यदान्योन्यम् । अ. कौ. ८.२६५ द्वयोरन्योन्येनान्योन्यस्य विशेषाधानमन्योन्यम् । र. २ अन्योन्यं वस्तूनां परस्परोत्कर्षहेतुत्वे। अ-कौ. ४६

<headword>अन्योक्ति</headword>

Anyoktiḥ अन्योक्तिः  Uncommon Statement

The term anyokti (anya different, other than that, and ukti √vac kti <ktin statement or expression) literally means a different statement. In this figure of speech, the principal referent (upameya or the subject in hand) though explicitly stated suggests or indirectly implies the non-referent (ie upamāna or the thing given in comparison). Bhoja considers it as a variety of Samāsokti. Ubhayokti, a similar figure of speech, recognized by some, is also not different from Anyokti. But there is slight difference between Samāsokti and Anyokti since the former shows unanimity of adjective phrases while the latter bears no such peculairity.

eg 1. kṣutkṣāmo'pi jarākṛśo'pi śithilaprāṇo'pi kaṣṭām daśām apanno'pi vipannadidhitir api praneṣu gacchatsvapi. mattebhendra-viśāla-kumbha-dalana-vyāpāra-baddhaspṛhaḥ kiṃ jirṇaṃ tṛṇam atti mānamahatām agresaraḥ keśarī.

क्षुत्क्षामोऽपि जराकृशोऽपि शिथिलप्राणोऽपि कष्टां दशाम् आपन्नोऽपि विपन्नदीधितिरपि प्राणेषु गच्छत्स्वपि । मत्तेभेन्द्रविशाल-कुम्भदलन-व्यापार-बद्धस्पृहः किं जीर्णं तृणमत्ति मानमहतामग्रेसरः केशरी ॥ Even feeble in hunger, emaciated in old age, Lacking in vigour and fallen in pitiable stage, With all glamour gone and put to risk of life Does the lion, the best of all dignified animals Intent on tearing the enormous trunk of the elephant (Intoxicated and gigantic) eats worn out grass!

Definitions

असमानविशेषणमपि यत्र समानेतिवृत्तमुपेयम् । उक्तेन गम्यते परमनुमानेनेति सान्योक्तिः ॥ रु. का. ८.७४ सामान्ये प्रस्तुते तदन्यस्य विशेषस्य, विशेषे सामान्यस्य, कार्ये कारणस्य, कारणे कार्यस्य, सदृशे सदृशस्य चान्यस्य प्रस्तुतस्य उक्तिरभिघानमन्योक्तिः । हे. का. ६.१२०

<headword>अपह्नुति</headword>

अपह्नुतिः  Apahnutiḥ : Concealment :

apa √hnu ti <ktin=apanhuti literally means denial, concealment or disappearance. When an object proposed to be described (technically known as upameya or prakṛta) by the poet and closely related with some other object (known as the object of comparison ie upamāna or aprakṛta) is first denied or concealed and then the object compared to it is artistically established, the figure is called Apahnuti. Here such concealment or denial expressed in a very charming way is made either by a particular word or words or by complete statement. The standard of comparison is established as real; but the object of description appears, as if, unreal. Apahnuti is mainly twofold:

(i) attribution through concealment and (ii) concealment through attribution

Concealment comes after or before the upamana (the object of comparison) is established and such concealment is made in order to give prominence to the object of comparison, which is closely similar to the object compared to it.

Another variety of this figure is also recognised in such cases where something secret (ie not to be revealed explicitly) is expressed in a different way through paronomasia (śleṣa) or extended denotation (lakṣaṇā) or suggestion (dhvani).

Apahnuti is different from Ākṣepa (Paraleipsis), Sandeha (Doubt) or Rūpaka (Metaphor). In Ākṣepa, the object in hand is simply concealed; in Sandeha, there is simply doubt but no ascertainment. In Apahnuti, we see denial of what the thing really is as well as ascertainment of what it really is not. In Rūpaka, there is total superimposition and no scope of concealment.

Appayya says that some forms of Apahnuti, according to Udbhaṭa and others, should be treated as Vyājokti. In Apanhuti, the two objects (ie the prākaraṇika and the aprākaraṇika or the contextual and the non-contextual) are generally taken as conspicuously similar; but Daṇḍin thinks that similarity might not be very close and explains it as something established by anything else. Therefore, Bhoja makes twofold division of Apanhuti: (i) one based on similitude and (ii) other based on non-similitude.

Hemacandra acknowledges several varieties of it: (i) pure concealment (śuddha) (ii) partial concealment (paryasta) (iii) false concealment (bhrānta) (iv) artistic or deceitful concealment (kaitava)

eg 1. nāyaṃ śudāngśuḥ kim tarhi? śudhāngśuḥ preyasī-mukham. नायं सुधांशुः ? किं तर्हि ? सधांशुः प्रेयसी-मुखम् । Isn't it the moon? (Then) what's this? This is my love's moon-face.

eg 2. nedaṃ nabho-manḍalam amburāśiri nemās ca tārā nava-phena-bhaṃgāḥ. nāyaṃ śaśī kuṇḍalitaḥ phaṇīndro nāsau kalankaḥ śayito murāriḥ. नेदं नभोमण्डलमम्बुराशिरि नेमाश्च तारा नवफेनभंगाः । नायं शशी कुण्डलितो फणीन्द्रो नासौ कलंकः शयितो मुरारिः ॥ It's not the expanse of the sky, but the ocean, These are not the stars, but foams in accumulation; It's not the moon, but the serpent-king coiled, That's not a black spot, but Lord Murāri lying in bed.

In the first example, the face of the lady love, compared to the moon, has been denied and then it has been established as the moon itself.

In the second example, all the objects of description (like the sky, the stars, the moon and the black spot) have been denied and then other objects similar to these in form or quality have been established.

Definitions

अपह्नु तिरपह्नुत्य किञ्चिदन्यार्थदर्शनम् । का. २.३३४ अपह्नुतिरभीष्टा च किञ्चिदन्तर्गतोपमा । भूतार्थापह्नवादस्याः क्रियते चाभिधा... ॥ भा. का. ३.२१ अपह्नुतिरभीष्टा च किञ्चिदन्तर्गतोपमा । भूतार्थापह्नवेनास्या निबन्धः क्रियते बुधैः ॥ अ. सं.५ समेन वस्तुनाऽन्यापलापोऽपह्नुतिः । का. सू. ४.३.५ अतिसाम्यादुपमेयं यस्यामसदेव कथ्यते सदपि उपमानमेव सदिति च विज्ञेयापह्नुतिः सेयम् ॥ रु. का. ८.५७ अन्यदर्पयितुं रूपं वर्णनीयस्य वस्तुनः । स्वरूपापह्नवो यस्यामपह्नु  तिरसौ मता ॥ व. ३.५६ अपह्नुतिरपह्नुत्य किञ्चिदन्यार्थदर्शनम् । स. ४.४१ पदार्थलोपोऽपह्नुतिः। शृ. १० प्रकृतं यन्निषिध्यान्यतः साध्यते सा त्वपह्नुतिः । का. प्र. १०.१४६ विषयस्यापह्नवेऽह्नुतिः । अ. स. २१ नैतदेतदिदं ह्येतदित्यपह्नवपूर्वकम् । उच्यते यत्र सादृश्यादपह्नुतिरियं यथा ॥ वा. ४.८६ प्रकृताप्राकृताभ्यां प्रकृतलोपोऽपह्नुतिः हे. का. ६.२१ अतथ्यमारोपयितुं तथ्यापास्तिपरह्नुतिः । च. ५.२४ कलयति विषयेऽपह्नवमारोप्यं यत्र भासते सुतराम् । आहुरपह्नुतिमेतां बन्धच्छाया त्रयी चास्याः ॥ ए. ८.११ निषिध्य विषयं साम्यादन्यारोपोऽपह्नुतिः ॥ प्र. य. ८ प्रकृतं प्रतिषिध्यान्यस्थापं स्यादपह्नुतिः । गोपनीयं कमप्यर्थं द्योतयित्वा कथञ्चन । यदि श्लेषेणान्यथा वान्यथयेत् साप्यपह्नुतिः ॥ सा. १० प्रकृतस्य सदृशेनापलापोऽपह्नुतिः ॥ वा. ६ किञ्चिदपह्नुत्य यदन्यथार्थप्रदर्शनं साऽपह्नुतिः । अ. शे. ४.४ प्रकृतस्य निषेधेन यदन्यत्वप्रकल्पम् । साम्यादपह्नुतिः ॥ चि. शद्धापह्नुतिरन्यस्यारोपार्थो धर्मनिह्नवः। कु. ११.२६ या तु प्रकृतस्यान्यथाकृतिः साऽपह्नुतिः अ. कौ. ८.२४६ उपमेयतावच्छेदकनिषेधसमानाधिकरण्येनारोप्यमाणमुपमानतादात्म्यम् अपह्नुतिः । र. २ प्रकृतं निषिध्य भिन्नात्मतया प्रोक्तावपह्नुतिः कथिता । अ-कौ. २५

<headword>अप्रस्तुतप्रशंसा</headword>

अप्रस्तुतप्रशंसा Aprastuta-praśaṃsā: Indirect Reference : The word aprastuta is a technical term meaning non-contextual or non-referent, which is just the opposite of prastuta or the subject of discussion, the subject intended to be described; praśaṃsā means eulogy, praise, applause or any complimentary statement.

When any laudatory statement or any special reference to the subject of discussion by the poet is conveyed through the idea of the non-subject-matter, the figure of speech is called Aprastutapraśaṃsā. Here the aprastuta or the non-contextual, though not intended to be focussed by the poet, highlights the prastuta which is really intended to be made specially attractive. Daṇḍin, Vāmana and their followers think that the word praśaṃsā in the present figure denotes eulogy or praise, but, according to Jagannātha, it simply means any special reference or mention in the form of either praise or decrying also. This alaṃkāra is based on similitude. Vāmana observes that the object of comparison (upameya) is complemented through the standard of comparison (upamāna). Bhoja explains that there must be some reason behind the complimentary statement about the non-referent (ie aprastuta) and such reason may be directly stated or implied. Kuntaka says that the non-referent (aprastuta) is directly highlighted for the sake of elevating the referent (prastuta) and the special reference (ie prasaṃsā) about the non-referent should also be related to the referent (prastuta) through similitude or any other relation like cause-and-effect, particularand-general. Śobhākar says that such highlighting of the prastuta through the aprastuta is always stated explicitly or implicitly and never suggested.

eg 1. pādāhataṃ yadutthāya / mūrdhānamadhirohati. svasthādevāpamāne'pi dehinas tad varaṃ rajaḥ. पादाहतं यदुत्थाय मूर्धानमधिरोहति । स्वस्थादेवापमानेऽपि / देहिनस्तद्वरं रजः ॥ Dust kicked by foot rises higher, Rises on the head of the striker; Rising in disgrace from its own dwelling It proves superior to any human being.

eg 2. indur lipta ivāñjanena jaḍitā dṛṣtir mṛgīṇām iva pramlānāruṇimeva vidrumadalaṃ śyāmeva hema-prabhā. kārkaśyaṃ kalayā ca kokila-badhū-kanṭheṣviva prastutaṃ sītāyāh purataśca hanta sikhināṃ varhāḥ sagarhā iva. इन्दुर्लिप्त इवाञ्जनेन जडिता दृष्टिर्मृगीणामिव । प्रम्लानारुणिमेव विद्रुमदलं श्यामेव हेमप्रभा । कार्कश्यं कलया च कोकिलबधूकण्ठेष्विव प्रस्तुतं सीतायाः पुरतश्च हन्त शिखिनां वर्हाः सगर्हा इव ॥ The moon appears, as if, enveloped by dark spell, Uromantic and dull seem the eyes of the gazelle, The coral cluster gets its red hue, as if, dimmed, Lustre of gold turns, as if unbeamed, Roughness wrough, as if, in the voice of the cuckoo bird, Tail of the peacock gets, as if, censured -Whenever to all these beauties Sītā is compared.

In the first example, a general statement (ie the prastuta or the subject in hand) has been highlighted by a another statement (ie aprastuta).

In the second example, the ideal beauty of Sītā is the subject of discussion, and the poet's statement about such feminine beauty has been highlighted by special reference in the form of censure of the beauties of the moon, eyes of the doe, red hue of coral, sweet cooings of the cuckoo and peacock's tail, which are normally compared to for similitude.

Definitions

अप्रस्तुतप्रशंसा स्यादप्रक्रान्तेषु या स्तुतिः । का. १.३४० अधिकारादपेतस्य वस्तुनोऽन्यस्य या स्तुतिः अप्रस्तुतप्रशंसेति सा चैवं कथ्यते यथा ॥ भा. का. ३.२६ अधिकारादपेतस्य वस्तुनोऽन्यस्य या स्तुतिः । अप्रस्तुतप्रशंसेयं प्रस्तुतार्थानुबन्धिनी ॥ अ. सं. ५ किञ्चिदुक्तावप्रस्तुतप्रशंसा। का. सू. ४.३.४ अप्रस्तुतप्रशंसा स्यादस्तोतव्यस्य या स्तुतिः । स ४.५२ अप्रस्तुतोऽपि विच्छित्तिं प्रस्तुतस्यावतारयन्। पदार्थो वाथ वाक्यार्थः प्राप्यते वर्णनीयताम् ॥ यत्र तत्साम्यमाश्रित्य संबन्धान्तरमेव वा । अप्रस्तुतप्रशंसेति कथितासावलंकृतिः ॥ व ३.२५-२६ अस्तोतव्यस्याभिनन्दनमप्रस्तुतप्रशंसा । शृ. १० अप्रस्तुतप्रशंसा या सा सैव प्रस्तुताश्रया । का. प्र. २०.१५१ अप्रस्तुतात् प्रस्तुतस्य सामान्यविशेषभावे कार्यकारणभावे वा सारूप्ये च प्रशंसा क्रियते यत्राप्रस्तुतस्यापि वस्तुनः । अप्रस्तुतप्रशंसां तामाहुः कृतधियो यथा ॥ वा. ४.१३४ अप्रस्तुतप्रशंसा स्याद्यत्र प्रस्तुतानुगा । कार्यकारणसामान्यविशेषादेरसौ मता ॥ च. ५.६४ सामान्यविशेषत्वे सारूप्ये कार्यकारणत्वे च । अप्रस्तुतप्रशंसा निर्दिष्टा प्रस्तुतस्य गम्यते ॥ ए. ८.२७ अप्रस्तुतस्य कथनाद् प्रस्तुतं यत्र गम्यते । अप्रस्तुतप्रशंसेयं सारूप्यादिनियन्त्रिता ॥ प्र. य. ८ क्वचिद्विशेषः सामान्यात् सामान्यं वा विशेषतः । कार्यान्निमित्तं कार्य च हेतोरथ समात् समम् ॥ अप्रस्तुतात् प्रस्तुतं चेद् गम्यते पञ्चधा ततः अप्रस्तुतप्रशंसा स्यात् । सा. १०.५८ उपमेयस्य किंचिदुक्तावप्रस्तुतप्रशंसा । व ३ अप्रस्तुतप्रशंसा स्यात् सा यत्र प्रस्तुताश्रया । कु. २७.६६ अप्रासङ्गिकस्य वाक् प्रासङ्गिककथायां स्यादप्रस्तुतप्रशंसनम् ॥ अ.कौ.८.२५४ अप्रस्तुतेन व्यवहारेण सादृश्यादिवक्ष्यमाणप्रकारान्यतमप्रकारेण प्रस्तुतव्यवहारो यत्र प्रशस्यते साऽप्रस्तुतप्रशंसा।र. २ अप्रस्तुतप्रशंसा प्रकृतप्रतिपत्तिरेतया यत्र। कार्ये हेतौ व्याप्यव्यापकयोरन्यगीः समेतस्य ॥ अ-कौ. २८

<headword>अभाव</headword>

अभावः Abhāvaḥ : Non-Existent :

a (<nañ) bhāva denotes non-existence or negation which is just the opposite of bhāva ( existence). In Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika system of philosophy, abhāva is the seventh among seven categories (padārthas). It is not a separate predicament like all six positive categories (bhāva padhārthas) and, therefore, it is negative assertion of any positive or existent substance. Anything unreal, non-existent or negative is abhāva. In Mīmāṃsā system of philosophy, abhāva has been accepted as a pramāṇa (one kind of valid knowledge) while other schools include it under anumāna (Inference) or the state of relation of adjective-and-noun (viśeṣaṇa viśeṣya-bhāva ). From the domain of philosophical literature it has been taken in rhetoric. As a figure of speech Abhāva is a kind of poetic assertion about the non-existence or non-entity of things. Any matter of fact negation (such as Truth is not false) cannot produce such poetic beauty. eg 1. bhogā na bhuktā vayameva bhuktās tapo na taptaṃ vayameva taptāḥ. tṛṣṇā na jīrṇā vayameva jīrṇāḥ kālo na yāto vayameva yātāḥ. भोगा न भुक्ता वयमेव भुक्तास् / तपो न तप्तं वयमेव तप्ताः । तृष्णा न जीर्णा वयमेव जीर्णाः / कालो न यातो वयमेव याताः ॥ Enjoyments are not really enjoyed, It's we who are thereby decayed, Penance is not truly made, It's we who are but tormented, Thirst is never cooled, only we wear away Time does not pass, only we pass away.

In this verse, very common ideas or popular conceptions have been given in negative order and along with their falsity their contradictory nature has been asserted.

Definitions

असत्ता या पदार्थानामभावः सोऽभिधीयते । स. ७.५ पदार्थानामविद्यमानताऽभावः । श्रृ. १०

<headword>अर्थान्तरन्यास</headword>

अर्थान्तरन्यासः Arthāntaranyāsaḥ: Corroboration :

It is artha antara nyāsa. artha means idea or statement, antara is difference; arthāntara means different but similar idea; nyāsa means corroboration, support, establishment, placement etc. Therefore, any proposition or idea corroborated, supported, strengthened or established by another similar statement is to be known as Arthāntaranyāsa or Corroboration. This figure occurs under the following conditions: (a) there should be two different statements with similar ideas--the principal and the subordinate, and these should not be contradictory to each other in any way, (b) the corroboration between the two statements may be directly stated or implied, (c) the corroboration is to be based either on the concept of similitude or dissimilitude, (d) the two statements should be identical through the mutual relation of-(i) inter-dependence (ānugatya), (ii) cause-and-effect (kārya kāraṇa), (iii) coherence (sāmarthya), (iv) invariable concomittance (vyāpya-vyāpaka), (v) general-and-particular (sāmānya-viśeṣa).

Here the process of corroboration happens thus: (a) one general idea supported by a particular, (b) one particular idea supported by a general, (c) an effect supported by a cause, (d) a cause supported by an effect,

The supporting statement is normally placed after the proposition to be supported, but this order may also be reversed.

The fourfold division of this figure mentioned above may be based on resemblance and non-resemblance, which again may be paronomastic or non-paronomastic. So Arthāntaranyāsa can be applied in eight varieties.

The figure is different from Drṣṭānta (Exemplification) and Partivastūpamā. In Arthāntaranyāsa, the two statements stand in relation to general-and-particular proposition, but in case of Dṛṣṭānta and Prativastūpamā it is not so. In Dṛṣṭānta a general proposition is supported by another such proposition or a particular is strengthend by another particular one, and there is a relation of coherence between the two. In Partivastūpamā, there is a relation of comparison between the two, one being the standard of comparison (upamāna) and the other object of comparison (upameya).

The last two varieties of Arthāntaranyāsa (based on the relation of cause-and-effect) as supported by Ruyyaka and Viśvanātha, practically belong to the domain of Kāvyalinga. The corroboration as represented here in the present figure, according to most of the rhetoricians, is based on the relation of universal-andgeneral (sāmānya-viśeṣa-bhava).

Arthāntaranyāsa is one of the popular figures of speech and this type of rhetoric expression is found to be very common with the Sanskrit poets. eg 1 sahasā vidadhīta na kriyām avivekaḥ paramāpadāṃ padam. vriṇute hi vimṛśya-kāriṇaṃ guṇa-labdhāḥ svayameva sampadaḥ. सहसा विदधीत न क्रियाम् अविवेकः परमापदां पदम् । वृणुते हि विमृश्यकारिणं गुणलव्धाः स्वयमेव सम्पदः ॥ Do not do anything all on a sudden, Since the fool are subjected to heavy burden; Fortune herself welcomes only the considerate If attracted by his virtues favourite.

Here the general statement (given in the first sentence) has been supported by a particular statement (given in the second sentence). The corroboration between the two statements given in two different sentences has been based on similitude. Expressions are identical and mutually based on the relation of general and particular (sāmānya-viśeṣa-bhāva).

Definitions

उपन्यासस्तथान्यः स्यात्प्रस्तुताद्यत् क्वचिद्भवेत् ज्ञेयः सोऽर्थान्तरन्यासः पूर्वार्थानुगतो यदि ॥ वि. १४.८ ज्ञेयः सोऽर्थान्तरन्यासो वस्तु प्रस्तुत्य किंचन । तत्साधनसमर्थस्य न्यासो योऽन्यस्य वस्तुनः ॥ का. १६३ उपन्यसनमन्यस्य यदर्थस्योदितादृते । ज्ञेयः सोऽर्थान्तरन्यासः पूर्वथानुगतो यथा ॥ भा. का. २.७१ समर्थकस्य पूर्वं यद्वचोऽन्यस्य च पृष्ठतः । विपर्ययेण वा यत्स्याद्धि शब्दोक्त्यान्यथापि वा ॥ ज्ञेयः सोऽर्थान्तरन्यासः । अ. सं. २.४ उक्तसिद्ध्यैवस्तुनोऽर्थान्तरस्यैव न्यसनम् अर्थान्तरन्यासः । का. सू. ४.३.२१ धर्मिणमर्थविशेषं सामान्यं वाभिधाय तत्सिद्ध्यै । यत्र सधर्मिकमितरं न्यस्येत्सोऽर्थान्तरन्यासः ॥ रु.क.८.७६ भवेदर्थान्तरन्यासः सादृश्येनोत्तरेण सः । अ. ३४४.२३ वाक्यार्थान्तरविन्यासो मुख्यतात्पर्यसाम्यतः ज्ञेयः सोऽर्थान्तरन्यासः यः समर्पकतयाहितः ॥ व. ३.५४ वाक्यार्थान्तरविन्यासो मुख्यतात्पर्यसाम्यतः ज्ञेयः सोऽर्थान्तरन्यासः । व. १.५४ ज्ञेयः सोऽर्थान्तरन्यासो वस्तु प्रस्तुत्य किञ्चन । तत्साधनसमर्थस्य न्यासो योऽन्यस्य वस्तुनः ॥ स. ४.६७ वस्तूपन्यस्य तत्साधनसमर्थस्य वस्तुनोऽन्यस्य न्यसनमर्थान्तरन्यासः। शृ. १० सामान्यं वा विशेषो वा तदन्येन समर्थ्यते । यत्तु सोऽर्थान्तरन्यासः साधर्म्येणेतरेण वा ॥ का. प्र. १०.१३५ सामान्यविशेषकार्यकारणभावाभ्याम्। निर्दिष्टप्रकृतसमर्थनमर्थान्तरन्यासः । अ. स. ३६ उक्तसिद्ध्यर्थमन्यार्थन्यासो व्याप्तिपुरः सरः । कथ्यतेऽर्थान्तरन्यासः ॥ वा. ४।६२ विशेषस्य सामान्येन साधर्म्यवैघर्माभ्यां समर्थनमर्थान्तरन्यासः । है. का. ६.१३ भवेदर्थान्तरन्यासोऽनुषक्तार्थान्तराभिधा। च. ५.६६ सामान्येन विशेषः सामान्यं वा यदा विशेषेण। कथितः समर्थ्यतेऽर्थो भवति तदर्थान्तरन्यासः ॥ ए. ८.२८ कार्यकारणसामान्यविशेषाणां परस्परम् । समर्थनं यत्र सोऽर्थान्तरन्यास उदाहृतः ॥ प्र. ८ सामान्यं वा विशेषण विशेषस्तेन वा यदि । कार्य च कारणेनेदं कार्येण च समर्थ्यते । साधर्म्येणेतरेणार्थान्तरन्यासोऽष्टधा ततः ॥ सा. १०.६१ विशेषस्य सामान्येन समर्थनमर्थान्तरन्यासः ॥ वा. का. ३ उक्तिरर्थान्तरन्यासः स्यात्सामान्यविशेषयोः । कु. १२२ यस्मिन् विशेषः सामान्यं समर्थ्येत परेण यत् । साधर्म्यादथ वैधर्म्यात स न्यासोऽर्थान्तरस्य हि ॥ अ. कौ. ८.२३४ सामान्येन विशेषस्य, विशेषेण सामान्यस्य वा यत् समर्थनं तदर्थान्तरन्यासः । र. २ यदि सामान्यविशेषौ समर्थ्येते विशेषसामान्ये । साधर्म्याद् वैधर्म्यादपि वा सोऽर्थान्तरन्यासः ॥ अ. कौ. २३८

<headword>अर्थापत्ति</headword>

अर्थापत्तिः Arthāpattiḥ: Presumption:

artha āpatti (ā √pad ti <ktin) literally means an inference from circumstances, presumption, implication etc. It is a figure in which a relevant assertion suggests an inference not actually connected with the subject in hand, or vice versa. In Mīmāṃsā school of philosophy, arthāpatti is one of the five sources of knowledge or modes of proof (pramāṇa). There it has been explained thus :

arthāpatti is deduction of a matter from that which could not else be ; assumption of a thing, not itself perceived but necessarily implied by another which is seen, heard or proved.

In Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika school of philosophy, arthāpatti in a kind of inference (anumāna). But the mīmāṃsakas treat it as a special kind of inference (a separate method of knowledge, different from anumāna) used to account for an apparent inconsistency. The difference between anumāna and arthāpatti (ie inference and presumption) may be shown thus:

(a) The strong and stout man does not take food during day-time. From this statement it may be presumed that he takes food during night. But the logic of the philosophical school is slightly different from that of the rhetorical school. According to Viśvanātha, the figure Arthāpatti is based on the logic of the maxim of 'the stick-and-cake' (ie daṇḍa-apūpikā-nyāya)

Arthāpatti was first introduced by Bhoja who was followed by Ruyyaka, Jayadeva, Viśvanātha Appayya, Jagannātha and others. In order to explain the logical sequence of this figure Appayya has refferred to the maxim: what else can it be? (ie kaimutika-nyāya).

eg 1. sa jitas tvan mukhenenduḥ / kā vārtā sarasīruhām!

स जितस्त्वन्मुखेनेन्दुः / का वार्ता सरसीरुहाम् ?

Even that (glamourous) moon has been vanquished by her face, Then what else can be the plight of the water-born lotus!

Here the poet intends to signify the beauty of the lotus-like face of the maiden. But instead of directly stating this he informs that even the moon has been defeated by the face and therefore the lotus appears insignificant to it. So it is implied from the statement that the beauty of the face is par excellence (as it is not comparable to the moon or the lotus). Definitions

प्रत्यक्षादिप्रतीतोऽर्थो यस्तथा नोपपद्यते । अर्थान्तरञ्च गमयत्यर्थापत्तिं वदन्ति ताम् ॥ स. ३.५२ प्रत्यक्षादधिगतोऽर्थस्तथानुपपद्यमानोऽर्थान्तरं गमयतीत्यर्थापत्तिः शृ. १० दण्डापूपिकयाऽर्थान्तरापतनमर्थापत्तिः । अ. स. ६४ अर्थापत्तिः स्वयं सिध्येत् पदार्थान्तरवर्णनम् । च. ५।३७ दण्डापूपिकया यत् स्यादेवार्थान्तरापतनम् । अर्थापत्तिरियं सा कथितालंकारपारगैर्द्वेधा॥ ए. ८.५५ एकस्य वस्तुनो भावाद्यत्र वस्त्वन्यदापतेत् । कैमुत्यन्यायतः सा स्यादार्थापत्तिरलंक्रिया ॥ प्र. य. ४५२ दण्डापूपिकयान्यार्थागमोऽर्थापत्तिरिष्यते । सा. १० कैमुत्येनार्थसंसिद्धिः काव्यार्थापत्तिरिष्यते । कु. ५६.१२० केनचिदर्थेन तुल्यन्यायत्वादर्थान्तरस्यापत्तिरर्थापत्तिः । र. २

<headword>अल्प</headword>

अल्पम् Alpam : Less :

The word alpa literally means small, less, a little, scanty etc. None except Appayya defines and illustrates the figure. Alpa, according to him, is based on the idea of the container and the contained (ādhāra-ādheya-bhāva). When the object stated as the contained one (ie ādheya) appears scanty and the object stated as the container (ie ādhāra) appears scantier, the figure of speech is Alpa.

eg 1. maṇimālormikā te'dya/kare japavatīyate मणिमालोर्मिका तेऽद्य / करे जपवटीयते ।

The jewelled bangle in thy hand to-day Like the counting bead does stay. Appayya's example is a case of suggestive poem. It describes the condition of a love-lorn lady who holds a jewel bangle in her wrist. Due to the state of separation from her lover she has become so much emaciated that even the bangle in her hand appears very inappropriate.

Definition

अल्पं सूक्ष्मादाधेयादाधारस्य सूक्ष्मता । कु. ६७ <headword>अवज्ञा</headword> Avajñā  अवज्ञा  : Dishonour

ava √jñā (ā <añ) literally means contempt, dishonour, low opinion, disregard etc. When the merits or defects of one are not found to act or react in the other in spite of the fact that it would have been so, the figure of speech is called Avajñā. It is just the opposite of Ullāsa (Reflection). But Jagannātha says that this figure should not be treated as a separate alaṃkara since it is not different from Viśeṣokti (Peculiar Allegation) in any way.

eg 1. mlāyanti yadi padmāni / kā hānir amṛtadyuteḥ? म्लायन्ति यदि पद्मानि / का हानिरमृतद्युतेः । If the lotuses become lack-lustre With the moon (if tarnished) what fault is there? 2. niṣṇāto'pi vedānte vairāgyaṃ naiti durjanaḥ. ciraṃ jalanidhau magno maināka iva mārdavam. निष्णातोऽपि वेदान्ते / वैराग्यं नैति दुर्जनः । चिरं जलनिधौ मग्नो / मैनाक इव मार्दवम् ॥ A rogue though proficient in Vedāntism Never does accept stoicism, Like the mount Kailāśa not becoming tender Though submerged under ocean for ever.

It is believed that lotuses bloom in the morning by the rays of the sun and after the nightfall they due to effect of the moonbeams. But the moon is always very much agreeable for its nectarlike rays. If the lotus turns pale by night it is not the fault of the moon. Here we see that the merits of the moon-beams are reacting adversly towards the lotuses.

In the second example, it is stated that a rogue though versed in the philosophy of the Vedanta does not follow the life of a saint. Vedanta preaches that all mundane objects are unreal and all worldly pleasures produce nothing but pain in the long run; the only reality is Brahman, the eternal spirit. Here it is implied that the teaching of ethical values is of no use for the rogue.

Definitions

अवज्ञा वर्ण्यते वस्तु गुणदोषाक्षमं यदि । च. ५.११२ ताभ्यां तौ यदि न स्यातामवज्ञालंकृतिस्तु सा । कु. १०११३६ तद् (उल्लास)-विपर्ययोऽवज्ञा। र. २ <headword>अवसर</headword>

अवसरः  Avasaraḥ : Opportune:

The word avasara (ava √sṛ a < ac) denotes leisure, occasion, opportune time etc. When some very charming sense is implied out of what is plainly said, the figure of speech involved here is named Avasara. It is a minor figure and recognized by Rudraṭa and Vāgbhaṭa only. Avasara is simply a variety of Vakrokti.

Definitions

अर्थान्तरमुत्कृष्टं सरसं यदि वोपलक्षणं क्रियते । अर्थस्य तदभिधानप्रसंगतो यत्र सोऽवसरः ॥ रु.का. ७.१०३ यत्रार्थान्तरमुत्कृष्टं सम्भवत्युपलक्षणम् । प्रस्तुतार्थस्य स प्रोत्को बुधैरवसरो यथा ॥ वा. ४.१२४

<headword>अहेतु</headword>

अहेतुः Ahetuḥ: Unchanging :

a (<nañ) hetu literally means without cause. In Indian logic, hetu denotes cause, reason, object or motive. Rhetorically Ahetu occurs when there is absence of change even in the presence of a strong reason for such, or more simply it is Ahetu if the cause does not produce its appropriate effect and becomes inoperative.

This figure is an uncommon one and acknowledged by a few (like Rudraṭa, Bhoja and Vāgbhaṭa). It should not be treated as a separate figure since it can be included under Viśeṣokti (Peculiar Allegation).

eg 1. anurāgavatī sandhyā / divasas tatpuraḥsaraḥ. aho daivagatiḥ kīdṛk / tathāpi na samāgamaḥ.

अनुरागवती सन्ध्या / दिवसस्तत्पुर: सरः ।
अहो दैवगतिः कीदृक् / तथापि न समागमः ॥

The twilight lady is tinged red in amor While the day-lover comes in front of her, Oh! how is it--the decree of fate! Even so the twain do never meet. This poem is a figurative description of twilight when the day comes to an end and the evening approaches slowly. Here the two words sandhyā (evening) and divasaḥ (day) are the symbol of the lady and her lover. The personification of these two has been possible due to their grammatical gender (ie. sandhyā is of feminine gender and divasaḥ is of masculine gender). The two adjective forms anurāgavatī and puraḥsaraḥ are also very significant for their double meanings which are applicable to both the pairs 'evening and day' and 'the lady love and her lover'--anurāgavatī means tinged with reddish hue (applicable to evening) and full of love (applicable to the lady love), puraḥsaraḥ means advancing (applicable to evening) and approaching closer and closer (applicable to the lover)

The poem suggests a scene depicting the immediate state of separation between the pair though both of them are mutually very much attracted and approaching closely for love in union, but as ill luck would have it they are never united but separated for ever and ever.

Definitions

बलवति विकारहेतौ सत्यपि नैवोपगच्छति विकारम् । यस्मिन्नर्थः स्थैर्यान्मन्तव्योऽसावहेतुरिति ॥ र. का. ६.५४ वस्तुनो वा स्वभावेन शक्तेर्वा हानिहेतुना । अकृतात्मीयकार्यः स्यादहेतुर्व्याहतस्तु यः ॥ स. ३.१८ सत्यपि सामर्थ्ये अनुत्पादितस्वकार्यो व्याहतश्च हेतुरहेतुः । शृ. १० विकारहेतावप्यविकृतिरहेतुः । वा. का. ७

<headword>असंगति</headword>

असंगतिः Asamgatiḥ : Incongruity :

It is a (<nañ) non, saṃ √gam ti (<ktin) saṃgati meaning union, meeting, association, consistency, appropriateness, So the word asaṃgati literally means non-relation, unfitness, inconsistency incongruity etc. When the cause and effect (kāraṇa and kārya) are poetically represented as located in separate objects, the figure of speech is Asaṃgati. As a rule cause and effect (like smoke and fire, cloud and lightning) are always co-existent; but in such figurative statement we find apparent disorder of this relation between the two. Such incongruity happens due to poetic fancy. Jagannātha observes that inconsistency between cause and effect may also be due to difference in timing.

Asangati was first recognised by Rudraṭa and most of the scholars after him acknowledge it. But Bhoja includes it under Virodha (Contradiction).

It is twofold--the pure and the mixed. eg 1. tvad bhaktānāṃ namatyangaṃ bhangam eti bhava-klamaḥ.

त्वद्भक्तानां नमत्यङ्गं / भंगमेति भवक्लमः ।

Devotees of thine bend their heads down Whilst their sufferings of rebirth are gone.

2. tavādharoṣṭhe kṣatamañjanasya mama vyathārtaṃ malinañca cetaḥ. pītas tvayā me vadnāsavas tvaṃ mattaḥ kuto'yam anartha-paramparā.

तवाधरोष्ठे क्षतमञ्जनस्य / मम व्यथार्तं मलिनञ्च चेतः
पीतस्त्वया मे वद्नासवस् त्वं / मत्तः कुतोऽयमनर्थपरंपरा ॥

On your lower lip are the wound-marks of collyrium While my heart pains and is filled with gloom; From my mouth you have drunk wine, And turned drunk--how is this ominous reverse chain!

The first statement asserts that the devotees bend down their heads or bodies in order to pay homage to God; as a result they are able to avoid rebirth and sufferings therefrom. Those who believe in rebirth or transmigration of the soul seek emancipation by avoiding rebirth. But the bending down of heads does not denote that such an act has anything to do away with rebirth. Therefore, we find here apparent incongruity between cause and effect.

In the second example, it is stated that the lover is very much pained to look at the lips (of the beloved) turned black with wounds caused by collyrium used for the eyes. The same lady has become drunk by just sucking the lips of her lover while kissing him. Therefore, both the cases are instances of apparent incongruity of the relation of cause-and-effect. But all these exceptions have been very nicely expressed through poetic fancy. When we think over the inner meanings of such poetic staements all such absurdity or incongruti is removed.

Definitions

विस्पष्टे समकालं कारणमन्यत्र कार्यमन्यत्र । यस्यामुपलभ्येते विज्ञेयासंगतिः सेयम् ॥ रु. का. ६.४८ भिन्नदेशतयात्यन्तं कार्यकारणभूतयोः । युगपद्धर्मयोर्यत्र ख्यातिः सा स्यादसंगतिः ॥ का. प्र. १०.१६१ तयोस्तु भिन्नदेशत्वेऽसङ्गतिः । अ. स. ४५ आख्याते भिन्नदेशत्वे कार्यहेत्वोरसंगतिः । च. ५.९९ एषासङ्गतिरुक्ता हेतोः कार्यस्य भिन्नदेशत्वे । ए. ८.३८ कार्यकारणयोर्भिन्नदेशत्वे सत्यसंगतिः । प्र. य. ८ कार्यकारणयोर्भिन्नदेशतायामसंगतिः । सा. १० यत्र कार्यकारणयोर्युगपद् भिन्नदेशतयोपलम्भः साऽसंगतिः । वा. का. ३ प्रयोज्यप्रयोजकयोर्वैयधिकरण्यमन्यदेशत्वम् । अ. शे. ४।४ विरुद्धं भिन्नदेशत्वं कार्यहेत्वोरसंगतिः । कु. ३७।८५ अत्यन्तभिन्नाधारत्वे युगपद्भाषणं यदि । धर्मयोर्हेतुफलयोस्तदा सा स्यादसङ्गतिः ॥ अ. कौ. ८.३०० विरुद्धत्वेनापाततो भासमानं हेतुकार्ययोर्वैयधिकरण्यमसङ्गतिः । र. २

<headword>असंभव</headword>

असंभवः Asambhavaḥ: Inconsistent :

Asambhava (a saṃ √bhū a<ap) literally means something impossible, improbable or inconsistent. When something improbable or inconsistent is expressed about a person or thing with the intention of focussing some extra-ordinary quality, it is styled Asambhava. It is an uncommon alaṃkāra and, therefore not recognised by most of the rhetoricians. eg 1. ko veda gopa-śiśukaḥ śailam utpāṭayiṣyati. को वेद गोपशिशुकः शैलमुत्पाटयिष्यति । Who was aware that this cowherd lass Would uproot the mountain base!

Definitions

असंभवोऽर्थनिष्पत्तेरसंभाव्यत्ववर्णनम् । च. ५.७४; कु. ३६.८४

<headword>आक्षेप</headword>

आक्षेपः Ākṣepaḥ: Paralipsis :

ā √kṣip means to throw, cast, draw, point out, reject, infer, pass etc. The word ākṣepa connotes throwing off, withdrawing, diverting, putting into etc. This figure occurs when some idea intended to be expressed sincerely is apparently denied or suppressed with the intention of conveying another specially significant idea. In Greek rhetoric, the corresponding figure is Paralipsis meaning a passing over (Latin paraeteritio or occultatio), a literary trick by which a speaker emphasizes an idea by pretending to say nothing of it even while giving full expression. In Ākṣepa the denial is not real, but intentional and that is due to the purpose of bringing extra-ordinary charm to the statement of the speaker. It happens under the following conditions:

(i) there is some intended statement, (ii) verbal denial or supression of that statement, (iii) in the actual context, the denial is apparent, (iv) some significant idea is specially conveyed.

The denial being apparent turns the prohibition ultimately meaningless and hence the special meaning comes out. Vāmana says that the denial of the upamāna (ie the standard of comparison) is Ākṣepa and such denial is made either through phonetic tone (kāku) or through suggestive sense (vyañjanā). In the Dhvanyāloka, Ānandavardhana refers to some figures of sense (like Samāsokti (Speech of Brevity), Viśeṣokti (Peculiar Allegation), Paryāyokta (Periphrasis), Apahnuti (Concealment) Dīpaka (Illumination) and Ākṣepa (Paralipsis) where, according to him, there is always a suggested sense in addition to the expressed sense. But he observes that in all such cases the primary meaning is more charming than the suggested meaning. Ākṣepa has threefold varieties: (i) the intended sense may be actually stated, (ii) it may not be completely stated or (iii) it may be concealed.

But Daṇḍin remarks that the denial in Ākṣepa may be related to the past, present or future, and again on the merit of the context it may have countless varieties: (i) denial of someone's qualities (dharmākṣepa), (ii) denial of cause (kāraṇākṣepa), (iii) denial of effect (kāryākṣepa), (iv) denial on the pretext of benediction (aśīrvacanākṣepa), (v) denial on the pretext of anger (roṣākṣepa) etc.

eg 1. candra saṃdarsay-ātmanam athavāsti priyā-mukham. चन्द्र संदर्शयात्मानम् / अथवास्ति प्रियामुखम् । O moon, show me thy own self Otherwise the face of my love remains for help. 2. gaccha gacchasi chet kānta panthanaḥ santu te śivāḥ mamāpi janma tatra syat yasmin bhūyo gato bhavān. गच्छ गच्छसि चेत्कान्त / पन्थानः सन्तु ते शिवाः । ममापि जन्म तत्र स्यात् / यस्मिन् भूयो गतोभवान् ॥ Get thee gone, O dear, if thou art going Auspicious be all thy wanderings. May I be there reborn Where thou would have gone.

In the first example, the intended meaning is concealed. Here the lover requests the moon to shine in the sky because he finds solace looking at the moon which is equal in beauty to his beloved lady's face. But the expression of supression of the moon and presentation of the moon-like face gives an extra-ordinary flavour to the statement.

In the second example, the primary sense denotes that the lady love expresses her good wishes towards her lover who is ready to depart to a distant place leaving her alone; she also wishes that she may be reborn in her lover's land to meet him there. But the inner meaning suggests that it would not be possible for her to stay without her lover.

Definitions

प्रतिषेधोत्त्किराक्षेपः क. २.१२० प्रतिषेध इवेष्टस्य यो विशेषाभिधित्सया । आक्षेप इति तं सन्तः शंसन्ति द्विविधं यथा ॥ भा. का. २.६८ प्रतिषेध इवेष्टस्य यो विशेषाभिधित्सया । आक्षेप इति तं सन्तः शंसन्ति कवयः सदा ॥ अ. सं. २ उपमानाक्षेपश्चाक्षेपः । का. सू. ४.३.२७ वस्तु प्रसिद्धमिति यद्विरुद्धमिति वास्य वचनमाक्षिप्य । अन्यत्तथात्वसिद्ध्यै यत्र ब्रूयात्स आक्षेपः ॥ रु. का. ८.८६ निषेधच्छाययाक्षेपः कान्तिं प्रथयितुं पराम् । आक्षेप इति स ज्ञेयः प्रस्तुतस्यैव वस्तुनः ॥ व. ३.५५ विधिनाथ निषेधेन प्रतिषेधोक्तिरत्र या । शुद्धा मिश्रा च साक्षेपः ... ॥ क्रियासूत्तिष्ठमानस्य वारणं कारणेन यत् । उक्त्या युक्त्या च रोधो य आक्षेपः सोऽयमुच्यते ॥ स. ४.३४, ६५ विधिनिषेधाभ्यां प्रतिषेधोत्त्किराक्षेपः । शृ. १० निषेधो वत्कुमिष्टस्य यो विशेषाभिधित्सया । वक्ष्यमाणोत्त्कविषयः स आक्षेपः ॥ का. प्र. १०.१६१ उक्तवक्ष्यमाणयोः प्राकरणिकयोर्विशेषप्रतिपत्यर्थं निषेधाभास आक्षेपः । अ. स. ३६ उक्तिर्यत्र प्रतीतिर्वा प्रतिषेधस्य जायते । आचक्षते तमाक्षेपालंकारं विबुधा यथा ॥ वा. ४।७४ विवक्षितस्य निषेध इवोपमानस्याक्षेपश्चाक्षेपः । हे. का. ६.११ आक्षेपस्तु प्रयुक्तस्य प्रतिषेधो विचारणात् । च. ५.७० कमपि विशेषं वक्तुं प्रकृतस्योक्तस्य वक्ष्यमाणस्य यः प्रतिषेधाभासः कथितः सोऽयं द्विधाक्षेपः ॥ ए. ८.३१ विशेषवोधायोक्तस्य वक्ष्यमाणस्य वा भवेत् । निषेधाभासकथनमाक्षेपः स उदाहृतः ॥ प्र. य. ८ वस्तुनो वक्तुमिष्टस्य विशेषप्रतिपत्तये । निषेधाभास आक्षेपो वक्ष्यमाणोक्तयोर्द्विधा । अनिष्टस्य तथार्थस्य विध्याभासः परो मतः । सा. १०.६४, ६५ प्रतिषेधपुरःसरोक्तिराक्षेपः । वा. का. ३ एकेनापरस्यान्यथासिद्धिराक्षेपः । अ. शे. ४.४ आक्षेपस्वयमुक्तस्य प्रतिषेधो विचारणात् । कु. ३२.७३ निषेधाभासमाक्षेपं बुधाः केचन मन्वते । कु. ३२.३४ आक्षेपोऽन्यो विधौ व्यक्ते निषेधे च तिरोहिते। कु. ३२.७५ आक्षेपो वक्तुमिष्टस्य यो विशेषविवक्षया । निषेधो वक्ष्यमाणत्वेनोक्तत्वेन च स द्विधा ॥ अ. कौ ८।२७० निषेधेच्छाययाक्षेपः कान्तिं प्रथयितुं पराम् । इष्टस्याप्यभिधातुं योऽर्थस्य विशेषबोधाय । स्वयमेव प्रतिषेधः स वक्ष्यमाणोक्तविषय आक्षेपः ॥ अ-कौ. ३६

<headword>आगम</headword>

आगमः Āgamaḥ : Precept :

ā √gam a (<ach) literally means traditional doctrine, precept, sacred writings or scriptures (like the Vedas), the last of the four kinds of knowledge (pratyakṣa, anumāna, upamāna and śābda or āgama).

Here āgama has been taken in the sense of āpta-vakya (ie a valid judgement or proof as given by a wise man) or śabda pramāna ie valid proof revealed through wise men or codified in scriptures like the Vedas). When such a statement in the form of injunction or advice is represented in an artistic style by a poet, it is known as Āgama or Śabda. It is recognised by Bhoja and Appayya. It belongs to the category of pramāṇa-alaṃkāra (ie figures established on the methodology of logical argument)

eg 1. dāridryaṃ paramājñānam. दारिद्र्यं परमाज्ञानम् । Poverty is the obscurest nescience. 2. nāśāya mṛgayā rājñām iti jānannapi svayam jahau tāṃ mādhavo vīro na hiṃsyād iti bhāvayan. नाशाय मृगया राज्ञामिति जानन्नपि स्वयम् । जहौ तं माधवो वीरो न हिंस्यादिति भावयन् ॥ Hunting for kings is but kill-By himself knowing it fully well Mādhava, the valiant, left her Thinking 'violence is not to prefer'. Here the moral code of non-violence has been preached through poetic expression.

Definitions

आप्तवचनमागमः । श्रृ. १०

<headword>आवृत्ति</headword>

आवृत्तिः Āvṛttiḥ : Repetition :

ā √vṛt ti (ktin) āvritti denotes coming back, reversion, revolving, occurence, repetition etc.

As a figure of speech Āvṛtti occurs when word and meaning both are repeated. In Dīpaka also such recurrence happens, so Viśvanātha includes it under Dīpaka (Illumination). But Daṇḍin recognises it as a separate figure of speech and refers to its three varieties: (i) repetition of word / words, (ii) repetition of meaning, and (iii) repetition of both word and meaning

It is otherwise called Āvṛtti-dīpaka and should be treated as a variety of Alliteration.

eg 1. śaile śaile na māṇikyaṃ /mauktikaṃ na gaje gaje. sādhavo na hi sarvatra / candanaṃ na vane vane. शैले शैले न माणिक्यं / मौक्तिकं न गजे गजे। साधवो न हि सर्वत्र / चन्दनं न वने वने ॥ Gems are not (to be found) in each and every mountain, Ivory is not (to be found) in each and every elephant, The pious are not (to be found) everywhere Sandal in each and every forest is but rare.

Definitions

अर्थावृत्तिः पदावृत्तिरुभयावृत्तिरेव वा । दीपकस्थान एवेष्टमलंकाररत्रयं तु नः । का. २.१६६ । आवृत्तेदीपकपदे भवेदावृत्तिदीपकम् । च. त्रिविधं दीपकावृत्तौ भवेदावृत्तिदीपकम् । कु. <headword>आशी</headword> आशीः Āśīḥ: Bendiction:

The word āśiḥ literally means blessing, benediction in the form of a prayer, wish, desire, incantation etc. When any sort of benediction or blessing is poetically expressed in a charming and attractive way, the figure is called Āśiḥ. In literary and academic tradition it was a very popular and common method to introduce one's work (on literature or philosophy or science or whatever may be the subject) with a benedictary statement. Most of the poets and philosophers of Sanskrit literature have followed this tradition with due respect.

In the tradition of Sanskrit epics (mahā-kāvya), it is said that an epic starts either with benediction, obeisance to gods or respected personalities or indication of the subject-matter. In all literary traditions, all types of composition begin with benediction known as mangala ācaraṇa or nāndī. In philosophical literature, scholars have argued in details about the utility of benediction at the very beginning of each work. The first introductory verse of a drama, known as nāndī, is very significant and testifies to the long-drawn tradition of dramatic performance in ancient Indian literature. Benedictory verses are mainly concerned with religious traditions and personal faiths of the poets and authors who have followed this tradition very sincerely.

The figure Āśīḥ is first introduced by Daṇḍin and thereafter few scholars like Bhāmaha and Vāgbhaṭa have followed him. Āśīḥ or blessing expressing good wishes and overall prospect towards others has sometimes been applied as an incantation.

eg 1. sarvas taratu durgāṇi / sarvo bhadrāṇi paśyatu. sarvaḥ kāmān avāpnotu / sarvaḥ sarvatra nandatu. सर्वस्तरतु दुर्गाणि / सर्वो भद्राणि पश्यतु । सर्वः कामानवाप्नोतु / सर्वः सर्वत्र नन्दतु ॥ May all overcome difficulties, May all behold welfare and peace, May all obtain their wishes fulfilled, May all everywhere delight in bliss.

In this verse, a universal appeal for the welfare of humanity has been directly conveyed in the form of benediction. Definitions

सौहृदय्यविरोधोक्तौ प्रयोगोऽस्याश्च ॥ भा. का. ३.५५ आशीर्नामाभिलषिते वस्तुन्याशंसनम् । का. २.३५७ इष्टार्थस्याशंसनमाशीः । वा. का. ७

<headword>उत्तर</headword>

उत्तरम् Uttaram: Reply:

The word uttara literally means subsequent, concluding, reply, answer, result etc. The figure Uttara is a poetic statement in the form of an answer or question-and-answer. Here the question may not be put verbally but its presumption can be made from the answer stated therein, and the answer, if given, may not be very common, but can be conceived by an intelligent reader. The number of question and its answer may be one or more.

Uttara was first introduced by Rudraṭa and recognised by Ruyyaka, Vāgbhaṭa, Viśvanātha, Mammaṭa, Jagannātha and others. Two varieties of Uttara are generally found: (i) based on factual or objective type and (ii) based on resemblance.

Of the two the first variety bears some resemblance with Anumāna (Poetic Inference), still they are different because there are both sādhya and sādhana (ie. the major term or the thing to be inferred and the minor term) in Anumāna, but the major term is absent in Uttara.

The first variety of Uttara is also different from Kāvyalinga (Poetical Cause) since the answer cannot be justified in any way as the cause of question in Kāvyalinga.

Both Parisaṃkhyā (Special Mention) and the second variety of Kāvyalinga are set in question-and-answer form, but the former always excludes a famous and well-known answer. Bhoja includes Uttara under Sāra.

eg 1. ahanyahani bhūtāni / gacchanti yama-mandiram. śeṣāḥ sthiratvam icchanti / kim āścaryam ataḥ param. अहन्यहनि भूतानि / गच्छन्ति यममन्दिरम् । शेषाः स्थिरत्वमिच्छन्ति / किमाश्चर्यमतः परम् ॥ Day by day some living beings To the abode of Death enter, The rest still want to remain immortal -What else than this is a greater wonder!

It is a poetic statement in the form an answer to the question --what is the most astonishing thing in this world? The question has been put in the previous verse. Still from the answer given in this verse the question can be presumed.

Definitions

यत्र ज्ञातादन्यत्पृष्टस्तत्त्वेन वक्ति तत्तुल्यम् । कार्येणानन्यसमख्यातेन तदुत्तरं ज्ञेयम् ॥ रु. का. ८.३२ पदार्थानान्तु यः सारस्तदुत्तरमिहोच्यते । स. ३।१३ उत्तरश्रुतिमात्रतः प्रश्नस्योन्नयनं यत्र क्रियते तत्र वा सति । असकृद् यदसंभाव्यमुत्तरम् ॥ का. प्र. १०.१२१ उत्तरात् प्रश्नोन्नयनमसकृदसम्भाव्यमुत्तरं चोत्तरम् । अ. स. ७५ उत्तरवचनश्रवणादुन्नयनं यत्र पूर्ववचनानाम् । क्रियते तदुत्तरं स्यात्प्रश्रादप्युत्तरं यत्र ॥ रु. का. ७.६३ यत्र प्रश्नपुरःसरमेवासंभाव्यमुत्तरं किमपि । असकृद्भवति निबद्धं तदुत्तरं तावदत्रैकम् ॥ यत्र त्वनुपनिबद्धः प्रश्नः स्यादुत्तरान्नेयः । कमपि तदीयं भेदं द्वितीयमाचक्षते सुधियः ॥ ए. ८.६६-६७ यत्र प्रश्नपुरः सरमुत्तरमुभयोर्मिथः समुल्लसति । प्रश्नोत्तरिकासंज्ञं तमलंकारं विदुर्विबुधाः ॥ ए. ८.६८ उत्तरात् प्रश्न उन्नेयो यत्र प्रश्नोत्तरे तथा । बहुधा च निबध्येते तदुत्तरमुदीर्यते ॥ प्र. य. ४५४ उत्तरं प्रश्नस्योत्तरादुन्नयो यदि । यच्चासकृदसम्भाव्यं सत्यपि प्रश्न उत्तरम् । सा. १०.८२ उत्तरवचनश्रवणात् प्रश्नोन्नयनमुत्तरम् । वा. का. ३ किंचिदाकूतिसहितं स्याद्गूढ़ोत्तरमुत्तरम् । कु. ८३.१४६ प्रश्नस्योन्नयनं यदि उत्तरश्रुतिमात्रेणोत्तरं स्यात् । अ. कौ. २६६ प्रश्नप्रतिबन्धकज्ञानबिषयीभूतोऽर्थ उत्तरम्। र. २ उत्तरमात्रात् प्रश्नोन्नयने स्यादुत्तरं नाम । प्रश्ने लोकाविदितोत्तरस्य तच्चासकृत्प्रोक्तौ ॥ अ-कौ. ५० <headword>उत्प्रेक्षा<headword>

उत्प्रेक्षा Utprekṣā : Poetic Fancy :

The word utprekṣā (ut pra √īkṣ ac ā) literally means guess, conjecture, perceiving, looking upward, looking with attention. Rhetorically it means fanciful observation with attention, to compare one thing with other fancifully, imagining of one object under the character of another. Therefore, Utprekṣā is a variety of poetic fancy where the poet images one thing as almost identical with another. Here the poet fancifully describes the upameya and the upamāna as almost similar to each other in some respects. In such figurative statement, one object is fancifully imagined as something else, but not truly itself. Here some standard object of poetic description as the contexual one (ie the upameya such as the beautiful face) is represented, as if, the thing compared to it (ie the upamāna such as the moon or the rose). So the poet imagines the moon as being almost the face.

Though based on the fanciful idea of close similarity Utprekṣā differs from similar figures like Upamā, Rūpaka, Apahnuti, Pariņāma and Sandeha. Unlike Upamā Utprekṣā exhibits not mere resemblance, but strong likeness between two things. In Utprekṣā, there is neither total super-imposition (āropa) like Rupaka, nor concealment like Apahnuti. Utprekṣā is both identification (adhyavasāna) and supposition (sambhāvana) and not super-imposition (āropaṇa). Such identification occurs in two ways siddha and sāddhya. In the first case, one object is totally absorbed with the other, but when such absorption is in process, it is known as sāddhya. The first variety of identification is to be found in the figure Atiśayokti and the second one is the basis of Uprekṣā. As Upamā is eulogised as the mother of figurative expression so Utprekṣā is called the supreme figurative beauty like the graceful smile of the newly married girl. According to Keśavamiśra it is the soul of all rhetorical figures (sarvālaṃkāra-sarvasvam) and the successful use of such an alaṃkāra adds special charm to all poetic expressions. Characteristic features of Utprekṣā may be noted as follows: (i) words denoting comparison such as iva, nūnam, manye, dhruvam, śaṃke are common, (ii) such words mentioned above may or may not be used, (iii) comparison is based on any of the four mutual relations--genus, object, attribute and action (jāti-dravyaguṇa-kriyā), (iv) cause of comparison is either attribute or action (guṇa or kriyā, which may be explicitly stated or not.

Two principal divisions of Utprekṣā are accepted: (i) vācyā (expressed or dirictly stated), (ii) pratīyamānā (implied or suggested)

Other varieties are also mentioned: (iii) based on animate objects, (iv) based on inanimate objects, (v) based on inference, (vi) based on pure similitude, (vii) based on both inference and similitude.

With all other minor divisions and sub-divisions the former one (vacyā) consists of 56 and the latter (pratīyamānā) 32 varieties.

eg 1. limpatīva tamo'ngāni /varṣatīvāñjanaṃ nabhaḥ. asat-puruṣa-seveva / dṛṣṭir viphalatāṃ gatā. लिम्पतीव तमोऽङ्गानि वर्षतीवाञ्जनं नभः । असत्पुरुषसेवेव दृष्टिर्विफलतां गता ॥ Darkness is coating the limbs, as if, The sky is downpouring collirium, as if; Like servitude unto the undignified master Eye-sight comes in vain for the onlooker.

2. līneva pratibimbiteva likhitevotkīrṇarūpeva ca pratyupteva ca vajralepa-ghatitevāntarnikhāteva ca. sā nas cetasi kīliteva viśikhais cetobhuvaḥ pañcabhis cintā-santati-tantujāla-niviḍasyuteva lagnā priyā. लीनेव प्रतिबिम्बितेव लिखितेवोत्कीर्णरूपेव च प्रत्युप्तेव च वज्रलेप-घटितेवान्तर्निखातेव च । सा नश्चेतसि कीलितेव विशिखैश्चेतोभुवः पञ्चभिस् चिन्तासन्तति-तन्तुजाल-निविडस्युतेव लग्ना प्रिया । As if, melted or mirrored, As if, painted or engraved, As if, sown or pasted -Burried so deep is my beloved, As if, stuck to my heart rigid By the five arrows of Cupid, As if, sewed to me in a network of affection-Made of threads of continuous relloction.

The first example is the description of a dark night when a man in the open surrounding expresses his observation about the pitchdark atmosphere. It is an example of vācyā variety of Utprekṣā because the word iva (meaning as if) explicity states that such darkness is the most similar to a deep black coating on the body, the sky is downpouring masses of collyrium (like rains) and the eyesight is completely as vain as rendering fruitless service to a low person.

The second poem is a fanciful description of the romantic attachment of the beloved lady towards her lover. It portrays an attractive image of the bond of love existing between them. The use of the word iva bringing close resemblance expresses the sense of identification and supposition (adhyavasāna and sambhāvana).

Definitions

अन्यरूपस्य चार्थस्य कल्पना यान्यथा भवेत् । उत्प्रेक्षाख्योऽलंकारः कथितः स पुरातनैः ॥ वि. १४.७ अन्यथैव स्थिता वृत्तिश्चेतनस्येतरस्य वा । अन्यथोत्प्रेक्ष्यते यत्र तामुत्प्रेक्षां विदुर्यथा ॥ का. २.२१ अध्यवसाये व्यापारप्राधान्ये उत्प्रेक्षा । अ. सं २२ साम्यरूपाविवक्षायां वाच्येवाद्यात्मभिः पदैः । अतद्गुणक्रियायोगादुत्प्रेक्षातिशयान्विता ॥ अ. सं. ३ अतिसारूप्यादैक्यं विधाय सिद्धोपमानसद्भावम् । आरोप्यते च तस्मिन्नतद्गुणादीति सोत्प्रेक्षा ॥ सान्येत्युपमेयगतं यस्यां संभाव्यतेऽन्यदुपमेयम् । उपमानप्रतिबद्धापरोपमानस्य तत्त्वेन ॥ यत्र विशिष्टे वस्तुनि सत्यसदारोप्यते समं तस्य । वस्त्वन्तरमुपपत्त्या संभाव्यं सापरोत्प्रेक्षा ॥ रु. का. ८.३२, ३४, ६३ यत्रातितथाभूते संभाव्येते क्रियाद्यसंभाव्यम् । संभूतमतद्वति वा विज्ञेया सेयमुत्प्रेक्षा ॥ अन्यनिमित्तवशाद्यथा भवेद्वस्तु तस्य तु तथात्वे । हेत्वन्तरमतदीयं यत्रारोप्येत सान्येयम् ॥ रु. का. ६.११, १४ अन्यथा मन्यते यत्र तामुत्प्रेक्षां प्रचक्षते । अ. ३४४.२४ संभावनानुमानेन सादृश्येनोभयेन वा । निर्वण्यातिशयोद्रेकप्रतिपादनवाञ्छया ॥ वाच्यवाचकसामर्थ्याक्षिप्तस्वाथैरिवादिभिः । तदिवेति तदिवेति वादिभिर्वाचकं विना । समुल्लिखितवाक्यार्थव्यतिरित्त्कार्थयोजनम् । उत्प्रेक्षा वस्तुसाम्येऽपि तात्पर्यान्तरगोचरः । अन्यथावस्थितं वस्तु यस्यामुत्प्रेक्ष्यतेऽन्यथा । द्रव्यं गुणः किया वापि तामुत्प्रेक्षां प्रचक्षते ॥ स. ४.५० अन्यथावस्थितस्य अन्यथा उत्प्रेक्षणमुतप्रेक्षा । शृ. १० संभावनमथोत्प्रेक्षा प्रकृतस्य समेन यत् । का. प्र. १०.१३७ अध्यवसाये व्यापारप्राधान्ये उत्प्रेक्षा । अ. स. २२ कल्पना काचिदौचित्याद् यत्रार्थस्य सतोऽन्यथा । द्योतितेवादिभिः शब्दैरुत्प्रेक्षा सा स्मृता ॥ वा. ४.६० असद्धर्मसंभावनमिवादिद्योत्योत्प्रेक्षा । हे. का. ३.१ उत्प्रेक्षोन्नीयते यत्र हेत्वादिर्निह्नुतिं विना । च. ५. २६ अप्रकृतत्वेन स्यादध्यवसायो गुणाभिसंबन्धात् । साध्यः प्रकृतस्य यदा कथितोत्प्रेक्षा तदा तज्ज्ञैः ॥ ए. ८.१२ यत्रान्यधर्मसंबन्धादन्यत्वेनोपतर्कितम् । प्रकृतं भवेत् प्राज्ञास्तामुत्प्रेक्षां प्रचक्षते ॥ प्र. य. ३८३, चि. भवेत् सम्भावनोत्प्रेक्षा प्रकृतस्य परात्मना । सा. १०.४० अत्यन्तसादृश्यादसतोऽपि धर्मस्य कल्पनमुत्प्रेक्षा । वा. का. ३ अन्यनिमित्तके वस्तुनि अन्यनिमित्तकत्वारोपणम् उत्प्रेक्षा । अ. शे. ४.४ संभावना स्यादुत्प्रेक्षा वस्तुहेतुफलात्मना । कु. १२.३२ संभावनोपमानेनोपमेयोत्कर्षहेतुका उत्प्रेक्षा ॥ अ. कौ. ८.२३७

तद्भिन्नत्वेन तद्भाववत्त्वेन वा प्रमितस्य पदार्थस्य रमणीयतद्वृत्तितत्समानाधिकरणान्यतरतद्धर्मसंबन्धनिमित्तकं तत्त्वेन तद्वत्त्वेन वा सम्भावनमुत्प्रेक्षा  । र. २

संभाव्यते सह यदा साम्यप्रतियोगिना तदुपमेयम् । तामुत्प्रेक्षामाहुर्भिन्नां हेत्वादिविषयत्वात् ॥ अ-को. १८ <headword>उदात्त</headword>

उदात्तम् Udāttam: The Exalted :

ud ātta (ā √dā ta <kta) literally means elevated, lofty, exalted, noble, high, sublime, dignified etc. As a figure of speech Udātta is the statement of noble qualities of things or sublime virtues of dignified personalities. It has basic difference with Svabhāvokti (Natural Description) and Bhāvika (Vision). Statement of the natural qualities or fundamental aspects or basic virtues of things is the underlying principle of these three figures, but the difference lies on the following points: (i) Svabhāvokti is a statement of the natural but attractive qualities, (ii) Bhāvika is a statement of unreal but noble qualities, and (iii) Udātta is a statement of imaginary as well as exalted qualities.

In the present figure, noble qualities or sublime virtues are represented through poetic images and never purely normal or natural qualities of anything. According to Rudrata's list Udātta should be included in Avasara (Opportune), but in the Bhattikāya such a figure is named Udāra. Hemacandra takes it as a variety of Atiśayokti (Hyperbole) or Svabhāvokti (Natural Description). Bhoja acknowledges it as a specific quality of word and meaning while Daṇḍin, Bhāmaha and others treat it both as guṇa (poetic excellence of word or meaning) as well as alaṃkāra (figure of sense).

eg 1. āvirbhūto jagati suṣamārūpo bhautike'smin jñānātmāsu lasati bhagavān viṣtape mānasīye. prāṇānāṃ vā jvalati bhuvane prasphutaḥ śaktimūrtyā premadvārā prakaṭita-tanur bhāsate caityaloke. आविर्भूतो जगति सुषमारूपो भौतिकेऽस्मिन् ज्ञानात्मासु लसति भगवान् विष्टपे मानसीये । प्राणानां वा ज्वलति भुवने प्रस्फुटः शक्तिमूर्त्या प्रेमद्वारा प्रकटिततनुर्भासते चैत्यलोके ॥ Of the elemental world God appeared as the harmony all things, In the realm of psyche, the Lord manifests as knowledge incarnate, He shines forth as the spirit in the world of living beings, In consciousness, he expresses himself as Love aggregate.

In this poem, the unique qualities and subline virtues of God have been exalted by the poet. Definitions

आशयस्य विभूतेर्वा यन्महत्त्वमनुत्तमम् । उदात्तं नाम तं प्राहुरलङ्कारं मनीषिणः ॥ का. २.३०० उदात्तमृद्धिमद्वस्तु चरितं च महात्मनां । उपलक्षणतां प्राप्तं नेतिवृत्तत्वमागतम् ॥ अ. सं ४, का. सा. उदात्तं वस्तुनः सम्पत् महतां चोपलक्षणम् । का. प्र. १०.१७६ समृद्धिमद्वस्तुवर्णनमुदात्तम् । अङ्गभूतमहापुरुषचरितञ्च । अ. स. ८१, ८२ उदात्तमृद्धेश्चरितं श्लाघ्यं चान्योपलक्षणम्। च. ५।१२० अभिमतमेतदुदात्तं समृद्धिमद्वस्तुवर्णनं यत्र । यच्च महापुरुषाणामङ्गतया चरितवर्णनं भवति । ए. ८.७४ तदुदात्तं भवेद्यत्र समृद्धं वस्तु वर्ण्यते । प्र. य. ४६६ लोकातिशयसंपत्तिवर्णनोदात्तमुच्यते । यद्वापि प्रस्तुतस्याङ्गं महतां चरितं भवेत् । सा. १० वस्तुसंपत्त्या महदुपलक्षणेन च वर्णनमुदात्तम् । वा. का. ३ उदात्तमृद्धेश्चरितं श्लाघ्यं चान्योपलक्षणम् । कु. ६५.१६२ समृद्धिरुदात्तं वस्तुनः परा। अ. कौ. ८.२८४ वस्तुप्रचय उदात्तं महतामङ्गत्ववचनं वा अ-कौ. ४४

<headword>उदारसार</headword>

उदारसारः Udārasārah: The Excellent :

udāra means exalted, high, broad, wide, great, and sāra means essence, brevity, best, most excellent etc. This figure is defined by Jayadeva only. According to him, it is Udārasāra where some special quality of a thing is indicated even if such thing shows very close similitude with another thing. One variety of Atiśayokti closely resembles Udārasāra, and therefore, it is useless to treat it as a separate figure.

eg 1. madhuraṃ madhu pīyūṣaṃ tasmāt tasmāt kaver vacaḥ. मधुरं मधु पीयूषं तस्मान्तस्मात् कवेर्वचः । Honey is sweet, sweeter than honey is nectar, Even than that poetry is sweeter.

Definitions

उदारसारश्चेद् भाति भिन्नोऽभिन्नतया गुणः । च. ५.८९ <headword>उदाहरण</headword>

उदाहरणम् Udāharaṇam : Illustration :

It is ud ā √hṛ ana (<anat) and literally means an example, instance, illustration etc. Though this device is very common in language and literature yet as a separate figure of speech it is recognised by Jagannātha and a few others only. Udāharaṇa is based on similitude and has the following features: (a) there are two propositions separately--the subject in hand and its equivalent (ie prastuta and aprastuta), (b) the common attribute, (c) the prastuta and aprastuta or the contextual and the non-contextual are mutually related by some sort of similitude, (d) in order to strengthen a general proposition a particular proposition is cited as illustration in support of the former. These two propositions are related by some sort of similarity in meaning.

eg 1. abhimata-guno'pi padārtho doṣeṇaikena nindito bhavati nikhila-rasāyana-rajo gandhenogreṇa laśuna iva.

अभिमतगुणोऽपि पदार्थो दोषेणैकेन निन्दितो भवति ।
निखिलरसायनराजो गन्धेनोग्रेण लशुन इव ॥

A thing though agreeable by its merits For only one defect gets censure, Like the garlic, by smell most obnoxious, Still the best of elixir.

<headword>उपन्यास</headword>

उपन्यासः Upanyāsaḥ : Assignment

upa nyāsa (√nyas a < ghañ) lilerally means placement, statement, suggestion, proposal, reference, hint etc. Rhetorically Upanyāsa is a figure where something very different from the factual meaning or the primary sense is conveyed. The figure is named Assignment since the poet assigns here a non-contextual meaning through the plain meaning expressed therein. This alaṃkāra was first defined in the Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa and afterwards accepted by Rudraṭa, Hemacandra, Vāgbhaṭa and others. From the definitions it is not clear whether the intended sense is either connotative or denotative. Hemacandra asserts that the intended meaning (which is different from the primary meaning) is available in the following way:

(a) from general to particular, (b) from particular to general, (c) from cause to effect, (d) from effect to cause, (e) from the primary meaning to any secondary meaning. Upanyāsa can be easily included in Anyokti or Paryāyokti (Periphrasis) or Lakṣaṇā (extension of meaning) or Anumāna (Inference).

Alaṃkāra texts do not give any example of this figure and hence the examples of Anyokti etc may be taken into consideration.

Definition

उपन्यासेन चान्यस्य यदन्यः परिकीर्त्यते । उपन्यासमलंकारं तन्नरेन्द्र प्रचक्षते ॥ वि. ३.१७.६

<headword>उन्मीलित</headword>

उन्मीलितम्  Unmīlitam : Unfolding :

ut √mil ta<kta unmīlita means unfolding, opening, blowing, awakening etc. It is an uncommon figure recognised by late scholars like Jagannātha and Appayya. In this figurative expression, some sort of dissimilitude between two (ie the contextual and the non-contextual) based on poetic imagery gets unfolded due to some special cause.

eg 1. lakṣitānyudite candre padmāni ca mukhāni ca. लक्षितान्युदिते चन्द्रे पद्मनि च मुखानि च । Hardly had the moon risen When the lotuses as well as the beautiful faces were seen. <headword>उपमा</headword>

उपमा Upamā : Simile :

It is upa √mā (< māti) to measure, limit, compare with, prepare, arrange; upamā literally means resemblance, comparison, similarity, likeness etc. As a figure of speech Upamā (Simile Latin similus like) is the explicit statement of similarity existing between two or more things. Therefore, resemblance (sādṛsya) is the basic principle of simile. Rhetorically such resemblance is a kind of symbolism of language and this literary device is the best gift of human speech for the poets and writers. Similarity or resemblance between one and the other has been expressed in so many ways in literatures of the world. All language is metaphor and all metaphor is another kind of simile; each and every successful simile is also a metaphor. Simile or metaphor is unavoidable in language. Rhetorically simile is founded entirely on resemblance which one object bears to another. Logically sādṛśya or resemblance is based on the similarity of the qualities to the maximum extent between two objects though they are basically different. Simile or metaphor creates an agreeable image and prints the idea more specifically and clearly in the mind of the reader. In classification methodology, upamā or sādṛsya is considered as one the distinguishing attributes of things of the similar nature. Rhetorical features of Upamā are as follows: (i) there are two similar things--upameya ie the object of comparison or the thing compared to, and upamāna ie the standard of comparison as well as their common attribute (sādhāraṇa dharma), (ii) the object of comparison and the standard of comparison must be different in kind, (iii) resemblance between the two should be explicitly stated and not implied, (iv) resemblance should be artistically agreeable, spontaneous and self-evident, (v) no contrast or disagreeableness or difference between the two should be expressly stated.

In such comparison between two different objects, normally the upameya (ie the object of comparison) is projected as superior to the upamāna (ie the standard of comparison) or reversely the upamāna is less qualified than the upameya. So Bhāmaha says that poetic similitude between two things is based on guṇaleśa (ie inferiority of one and superiority of the other). In his aphorism on the form of nominal compounds between an adjective and a noun, Pāṇini refers to the words of common standard of comparison with objects like tiger, lion, bull etc.

Sanskrit rhetoricians have unanimously recognised Upamā as the most powerful rhetorical device of language and given it the supreme position among the figures of thought. The Nātyaśāstra of Bharata, the oldest extant work on Indian dramaturgy, records only four alaṃkāras and upamā tops the list. While commenting on Bharata's theory Abhinavagupta, the famous commentator and critic of Sanskrit literature, opines that the variety of the figures of thought is nothing but different shades of Simile. Keśavamiśra, in his Alaṃkāra-śekhara quotes Rajaśekhara who, according to him, eulogises Upamā as the guiding principle of the poets as well as the finest of all the figures of language. In Citra-mīmāṃsā, Appayya compares Upamā to an expert dancing girl captivating the hearts of all by attractive expressions.

Resemblance (ie sādṛśya or sādharmya), according to Sanskrit logicians, is a kind of relation existing between two or more things and based on common attributes like jāti (genus), guṇa (attribute) or kriyā (action). The older logicians maintain that this sādṛśya is a separate entity (padārtha) while the later ones include it under the seven universal categories. Each and every comparison may be called an upamā in general, but undoubtedly not a rhetorical simile. Any kind of figurative similitude should be artistically designed and poetically beautiful. Logical or factual likeness based on existentiality (ie sattva), cognizableness (ie jñeyatva) and logical assertion (ie prameyatva) bears no poetic charm whatsoever.

In Upamā, similitude between the objects can be expressed in language in different linguistic patterns in the form of indeclinables, nominal or adjective phrases, verbs, suffixes etc. A list of such words or endings is given below:

words or phrases: iva (like), vā (or), yathā (as if), tulya (equal), sanniva (as it were), samkāśa (alike), saprabha or salakṣma (equal), sama (like), sammita, (equal in form or appearance), saṃvādi or anuvādī (imitating), sajātīya (same), pratirūpaka (same in physical appearance), pratibimba (reflection) upamā (similar), upamita (compared), kalpa, deśiya, deśya, prakhya, tulya (equal) etc.

verbs: hasati (smiles), nindati (censures) jayati (vanquishes), dhatte (holds), dveṣṭi, druhyati (envies) pratigarjati (rebukes), ākrośati (envies) avajānāti (dislikes), kadarthayati (defiles, distorts), tatpadaṃ dhatte (assumes the same state), tasya anukaroti (imitates), tulām anubadhaāti, adhirohati (resembles) tat niṣedhayati (forbids), kāntiṃ vilumpati (assumes the beauty of another), saubhāgyaṃ puṣṇāti (holds the fortune of another), kakṣaṃ vigāhate (holds the same position), suffixes: kyac, kyaṃ, kvip, ṇamul etc.

Now we can exhibit how a simile turns to another figure through slight change:

eg 1. mukhaṃ candra iva śobhate मुखं चन्द्र इव शोभते The face shines like the moon. (Upamā: Simile)

2. mukha-candraḥ śobhate मुखचन्द्रः शोभते The moon-face shines. (Rūpaka: Metaphor)

3. mukhaṃ iva candraḥ मुखमिव चन्द्रः । The moon is like the face. (Pratīpa: Reverse Simile),

4. candra iva mukhaṃ mukhaṃ iva candraḥ चन्द्र इव मुखम्, मुखमिव चन्द्रः । The face shines like the moon, the moon shines like the face. (Upameyopamā: Chain Simile),

5. mukhaṃ mukham iva candraś candra iva. मुखं मुखमिव चन्द्रश्चन्द्र इव । The face is like the face, the moon is like the moon. (Ananvaya: Self Simile) 6. candraṃ dṛṣṭvā mukhaṃ smarāmi. चन्द्रं दृष्ट्वा मुखं स्मरामि । Seeing the moon I remember (her) face. (Smaraṇa : Recollection) 7. mukha-candrena tāpaḥ śāmyati मुखचन्द्रेन तापः शाम्यति । Heat cools down by (the sight of her) lotus-face. (Pariṇāma: Commutation) 8. kimidaṃ mukham, athavā candraḥ? किमिदं मुखम् अथवा चन्द्रः ! Is it (her) face, or the moon? (Sandeha: poetic Doubt) 9. candra iti cakorāḥ tvanmukham anudhāvanti. चन्द्र इति चकोराः त्वन्मुखमनुधावन्ति । Mistaking thy face for the moon the cakora birds are flying towards it. (Bhrāntimān: Illusion) 10. candro'yaṃ, na mukham. चन्द्रोऽयं, न मुखम् । This is the moon, not (her) face. (Apahnuti: Concealment). 11. mukhaṃ nūnaṃ candraḥ मुखं नूनं चन्द्रः (Her) face is undoubtedly the moon. (Niścaya: Certainty). 12. candro'yam. चन्द्रोऽयम् This is (no other) but the moon. (Atiśayokti: Hyperbole) 13. mukhena candra-kamale nirjite. मुखेन चन्द्र-कमले निर्जिते । By (her) face the moon and the lotus have been vanquished. (Tulyayogitā: Equal Pairing) 14. niśi candraḥ tvanmukhaṃ ca hṛṣyati निशि चन्द्रः त्वन्मुखं च हृष्यति । At night the moon as well as her face become delighted. (Dīpaka: Illuminator) 15. divi candro bhuvi tvanmukhaṃ śobhate दिवि चन्द्रो भुवि त्वन्मुखं शोभते । In the sky shines the moon, in earth thy face. (Dṛṣṭānta: Exemplification) 16. mukhaṃ candra-śriyaṃ bibharti मुखं चन्द्रश्रियं बिभर्ति । (Her) face captures the beauty of the moon. (Nidarśanā: Illustration) 17. mukhasya purataś candro niṣprabhaḥ मुखस्य पुरतश्चन्द्रो निष्प्रभः । Before (her) face the moon is lacklustre. (Aprastuta praśaṃsā: Indirect Description)

Classification of Upamā :

Rhetorical treatises have exhaustively dealt with different varieties of Upamā as well as its distinction from other figures denoting resemblance. Vāmana admits that Simile exhibits innumerable varieties which have been very prominent in literary expressions. Still some attempts have been made to account for the principal divisions and the sub-divisions of Upamā. Sanskrit rhetoricians have exhibited the largest number of the varieties of Upamā and thus, demonstrated the intrinsic complexities of rhetorical analysis of the Indian scholars who have administered a high structural and analytical method of logical argumentation. They have evaluated not only the many-sided flash of poetic fancy but also the stylistic novelty of poetic diction.

Twofold varieties of Upamā have been recognised in general: (1) Complete Simile (pūrṇā) and (2) Partial Simile (luptā).

Of these two the first division has five and the second division has twenty one varieties. Besides these there are also some other divisions which have been accepted by later scholars. An account of these may be given here in brief : Bharata mentions only five varieties: (a) Simile with eulogy (praśaṃsā), (b) Simile with censure (nindā), (c) Simile based on pure imagination (kalpitā), (d) based on total resemblance (sadṛśī), (e) based on partial resemblance (kiñchit sadṛśī).

Bharata admits that there are also may other varieties which may be found from the usages of the poets.

Daṇḍin refers to twenty four classes of Upamā by the following names: a. dharma-upamā: Qualitative Simile b. vastu-upama : Objective Simile c. viparyāsa-upamā: Reverse simile d. anyonya-upamā: Reciprocal Simile e. niyama-upamā: Regular Simile f. aniyama-upama: Irregular Simile g. samucchaya-upamā: Cluster Simile h. atiśaya-upamā: Hyperbolic Simile i. utprekṣā-upamā: Fanciful Simile j. adbhuta-upamā: Strange Simile k. moha-upamā: Illusive Simile 1. sleṣa-upamā: Paronomastic Simile m. samāna-upamā: Equal Simile n. nindā-upamā: Censure Simile o. Prasaṃsā-upamā: Eulogistic Simile p. virodha-upamā: Contrast Simile q. pratiṣedha-upamā: Negative Simile r. cātu-upamā: Light Simile s. tattvākhyāpana-upamā: philosophical Simile t. bahu-upamā: Multiple Simile u. vikriyā-upamā: Reactive Simile v. mālā-upamā: Girdle Simile w. prativastu-upamā: Typical Simile x. tulyayoga-upamā: Equal Simile y. hetu-upamā: Causal Simile.

Rudraṭa mentions three principal divisions: a) vākya-upamā: Simile in sentence, b) samāsa-upamā: Simile in compound words, c) pratyaya-upamā: Simile with suffix-base.

Ruyyaka's division is based on three main principles: a) Mutual relationship (anugāmitā), b) Reflexion-and-counter-reflexion (bimba-pratibimba-bhāva), c) Object-and-counter-object (vastu-prativastu-bhāva).

Bhoja gives twofold divisions: a) Verbal (vācyā) and b) Implied (pratīyamānā).

Śobhākara refers to two principle varieties based on the positive and negative aspects of the objects of comparison.

Upamā is based on both similitude and non-similitude while Vyatireka (Contrast) is based on mutual difference and Rūpaka on mutual identity. Therefore, Appayya remarks that similitude (as we find it expressed in poetic symbol or literary image) is rhetorically threefold: a) resemblance (sādṛśya) based on the predominance of mutual difference, b) resemblance based on non-difference and c) resemblance based on both mutual agreement as well as disagreement.

The figures like Dīpaka (Illumination), Tulyayogitā (Equal pairing), Dṛṣṭānta (Exemplification), Prativastūpamā (Typical Comparison), Sahokti (Connected Description) and Vyatireka (Contrast) belong to the first category.

Vidyānātha says that resemblance must be conforming to the literary practice of the particular time and place and never disagreeable or unfavourable in any way. Thus all kinds of defective similitude are henceforth excluded from poetic simile. Defects of Upamā recognised in general are as follows: (a) a difference in number and gender of the upameya and the upamāna, (b) mention of the inferiority of the upameya (ie the object of comparison), (c) superiority of the upmāna (ie the standard of comparison) and (d) uncommon or unusual similitude devoid of any kind of poetic charm

It should be mentioned here that some figures such as Prativastūpamā, Dīpaka, Ananvaya and others are very close to Upamā. Some earlier rhetoricians consider these figures as different varieties of Upamā. But, in course of time, they were gradually recognised as separate alaṃkarās and their basic differences from Upamā were also pinpointed. So we give below the points of their basic difference:

In Ananvaya (self Simile), one and the same object is compared to itself but in Simile there are two different objects. Vyatireka is based on mutual contrast though such contrast brings the sense of implied or indirect resemblance.

In Upameyopamā, two objects (or the Upameya and the upamāna are separately stated in two different sentences.

In Utprekṣā, the likeness between two things is purely a poetic fancy and not based on any factual estimation like that of Upamā.

In Rūpaka, there is absence of mutual difference between the two (ie the upameya and the upamāna). Rūpaka is compressed or condensed Simile. Therefore, it is said that an Upamā without like or as is a Rūpaka. Thus it can be said that -(a) Upamā is based on both mutual difference and non-difference (bheda-abheda-pradhāna), (b) Vyatireka is based on mutual difference (bhedapradhāna) and (c) Rūpaka is based on mutual identity (abheda-pradhāna).

Ruyyaka eulogises Upamā as the basic principle of all rhetorical language. Vāmana thinks that Upamā is the mother of all ornaments and is solicited for all such expressions where the poet wants to speak in favour of something specially or to express the essential nature or fundamental idea of any special information about an object or thing. Simile brings a sort of sparkling brilliance to any kind of expression. In his opinion, all varieties of Upamā can be brought under three categories: (i) poetic similitude expresses the charms of both the upameya and the upamāna, (ii) a simile brings forth beauty and grace to the expression and (iii) it signifies a suggestive sense

eg 1. puruṣaḥ siṃha iva, mukhaṃ candra iva. पुरुषः सिंह इव, मुखं चन्द्र इव, that man is like a lion, the face is like the moon, 2. dūrvā-kaṇḍam iva śyāmaṃ / tanvī śyāmā lata yathā. दूर्वाकाण्डमिव श्यामं / तन्वी श्यामा लता यथा । (Complete simile) Like a stem of grass the slim beauty is tender, With complexion of pure gold she is like a creeper. 3. śaradindu - sundara-mukhī / kuvalaya-dīrgha-locanā sā me. शरदिन्दुसुन्दरमुखी कुवलयदीर्घलोचना सा मे । (Complete simile) My sweetie has a lovely face That resembles the autumnal moon afresh; She shines with a pair of large eyes, That resembles blue lotuses in disguise. 4. śṛto'smi caraṇau viṣṇor / bhṛngas tāmarasaṃ yathā. शृतोऽस्मि चरणौ विष्णोर् भृंगस्तामरसं यथा । (Cluster simile) I resort to the feet of Viṣṇu,the All-pervador Like a bee in a lotus-shelter. 5. adharaḥ kiśalaya-rāgaḥ komala-viṭapānukārinau bāhū. kusamam iva lobhanīyaṃ yauvanam angeṣu sannaddham. अधरः किशलयरागः कोमलविटपानुकारिणौ बाहू । कुसुममिव लोभनीयं यौवनमंगेषु सन्नद्धम् ॥ (Complete simile) Her lips are as crimson as fresh leaves, And her arms imitate tender twigs; Her youth, as alluring as flower, On all her limbs does encounter. 6. candrāyate śukla-rucāpi haṃso haṃsāyate caru-gatena kāntā. चन्द्रायते शुक्लरुचापि हंसो/हंसायते चारुगतेन कान्ता । ( girdle simile ) By its white lustre the swan behaves like the moon, By her attractive gait the lady love acts like the swan.

7. krameṇa ca kṛtaṃ me vapuṣi vasanta iva madhumāsena, madhumāsa iva nava pallavena, nava-pallava iva kusumena, kusuma iva madhukareṇa, madhukara iva madena, navayauvanena padam. क्रमेण च कृतं मे वपुषि वसन्त इव मधुमासेन, मधुमास इव नवपल्लवेन, नवपल्लव इव कुसुमेन, कुसुम इव मधुकरेण, मधुकर इव मदेन, नवयौवनेन पदम् । Gradually newly blooming youth stepped into my body like the advent of spring with the honey-month, honeymonth with fresh leaves, fresh leaves with flowers, flowers with bees, bees with intoxication.

Definitions

यत्किञ्चिद् काव्यबन्धेषु सादृश्येनोपमीयते । उपमा नाम सा ज्ञेया गुणाकृतिसमाश्रया ॥ ना. १६.४२ यथाकथञ्चित् सादृश्यं यत्रोद्भूतं प्रतीयते । उपमा नाम सा ॥ का. २.२४ विरुद्धेनोपमानेन देशकालक्रियादिभिः । उपमेयस्य यत्साम्यं गुणलेशेन सोपमा । भा. का. २.३० हृद्यं साधर्म्यमुपमा । भा. का. ६.१, हे. का. ६.१ यच्चेतोहारिसाधर्म्यमुपमानोपमेययोः । मिथो विभिन्नकालादिशब्दयोरुपमा तु तत् ॥ अ. सं १.३२ उपमानेनोपमेयस्य गुणलेशतः साम्यमुपमा । का. सू. ४.२.१ उभयोः समानमेकं गुणादिसिद्धं भवेद्यथैकत्र । अर्थोऽन्यत्र तथा तत्साध्यत इति सोपमा ॥ रु. का. ८.४ उपमानोपमेययोः साधर्म्ये भेदाभेदतुल्यत्वे उपमा । अ. स. १२ उपमा नाम सा यस्यामुपमानोपमेययोः । सत्ता चान्तरसामान्ययोगित्वेऽपि विवक्षितम् ॥ अ. ३४४.६ प्रसिद्धेरनुरोधेन यः परस्परमर्थयोः । भूयोऽवयवसामान्ययोगो महोपमा मता ॥ स. ४.५ प्रसिद्धानुरोधेनार्थयोर्मिथः प्रतीयमानाभिधीयमानभूयोऽवयवसामान्ययोग उपमा। शृ. १० साधर्म्यमुपमा भेदे । का. प्र. ६.१२५ उपमानेन सादृश्यमुपमेयस्य यत्र सा । प्रत्ययाव्ययतुल्यार्थसमासैरुपमा मता ॥ वा. ४.५० उपमा यत्र सादृश्यलक्ष्मीरुल्लसति द्वयोः । च. ५।११, कु. १.६ विलसति सति साधर्म्ये स्यादुपमानोपमेययोरुपमा। ए.८.२ चमत्कारिसाम्यमुपमा । वा का. ३ स्वतः सिद्धेन भिन्नेन संमतेन च धर्मतः । साम्यमन्येन वर्ण्यस्य वाच्यं चेदेकदोपमा ॥ प्र. य. ८ साम्यं वाच्यमवैधर्म्यं वाक्यैक्य उपमाद्वयोः । सा. १०.२४ भेदे सति साधर्म्यमुपमा । अ. से. ४.२ उपमानोपमेयत्वयोग्ययोरर्थयोर्द्वयोः । हृद्यं साधर्म्यमुपमेत्युच्यते काव्यवेदिभिः ॥ चि. सादृश्यं सुन्दरं वाक्यार्थोपस्कारमुपमालंकृतिः । र. २ यथाकथञ्चित् साधर्म्यमुपमा । अ. को. ८ सादृश्यं सुन्दरं वाक्यार्थोपस्कारमुपमालंकृतिः । र. २ तत्रैकवाक्यवाच्यं सादृश्यं भिन्नयोरुपमा । अ-को. ८

<headword>उपमारूपक</headword>

उपमारूपकम् Upamā-rūpakam : Metaphoric Simile :

It is a combination of both simile and Metaphor. Though the figure is very uncommon it has been recognised by some older rhetoricians like Bhāmaha and Vāmana. It contains the features of both Simile and Metaphor, but practically it is a variety of Rūpaka.

<headword>उपमेयोपमा</headword>

उपमेयोपमा Upameyopamā Twin: Simile :

It is upameya or the object of comparison and upamā or similitude. Most of the famous rhetoricians have accepted this as a separate alaṃkāra though it may be taken as a variety of Upamā or Simile. The special feature of it may be stated thus:

The upameya and the upamāna are put in reverse ie. the upameya turns to be upamāna and the upamāna turns to be the upameya in succession, and the entire comparison is given in separate sentence or clauses, here no third object equal to upameya or upamāna is found or otherwise it may be called that no third object equal to upameya or upamāna is believed to exist.

In Ananvaya (Self-Simile) the object of description (ie the Upameya) is represented as peerless and therefore it is compared to itself and no other object.

1. kamaleva matir matir iva kamalā कमलेव मतिर्मतिरिव कमला । (His) intellect shines like (his) prosperity And (his ) prosperity shines like, (his) intellect.

Definitions

उपमानोपमेयत्वं यत्र पर्यायतो भवेत् । उपमेयोपमां नाम ब्रूवते तां यथोदिताम् ॥ भा. का. ३.३७ अन्योन्यमेव यत्र स्यादुपमानोपमेयता । उपमेयोपमामाहुस्तां पक्षान्तरहानिगाम् । अ. स. ५.२३ क्रमेणोपमेयोपमा। का. सू. ४.३.१५ उपमेयोपमा येयमुपमानोपमेययोः । सामान्या प्रस्तुतत्वात्तु लक्षणानन्यथास्थितेः ॥ व. ३.३८ विपर्यास उपमेयोपमा तयोः (उपमानोपमेययोः) । का. प्र. १०.१३६ द्वयोः पर्यायेण तस्मिन्नुपमेयोपमा। अ. स. १४ पर्यायेण द्वयोस्तच्चेदुपमेयोपमा मता । च. ५.१३ यद्युभयोः पर्यायात् स्यादुपमानोपमेयत्वम् । सन्निहितवाक्यभेदे सत्युपमेयोपमा द्विविधा ॥ ए. ३ उपमायां पूर्वस्यां प्रतियोग्यनुयोगिनौ यौ स्तः । विपरीतौ परतश्चेदुपमेयोपमा त्वेषा ॥ अ-कौ. २

<headword>उभयन्यास</headword>

उभयन्यासः Ubhayanyāsaḥ : Dual Standard :

ubhaya means both, nyāsa is corroboration, exposition, establishment etc. When both the assertions are given the same importance, it is known as Ubhayanyāsa. Here the subject of description (prastuta) or the contextual (prākaraṇika) and the non-contextual, though mutually dependent on each other as a rule, appear to be independently prominent.

This figure has been defined by a few scholars like Rudraṭa and Vāgbhaṭa. According to most of the theorists it should be treated as a variety of Arthāntaranyāsa.

eg 1. sakala-jagat-sādhāraṇa-vibhavā bhuvi sādhavoʼdhunā viralāḥ. santi kiyantas taravaḥ susvādu sugandhi-cāruphalāḥ. सकलजगत्साधारणविभवा भुवि साधवोऽधुना विरलाः । सन्ति कियन्तस्तरवः सुस्वादुसुगन्धिचारुफलाः ॥ Under the sun the virtuous are but rare, Who consider all high and low as treasure. How many trees do there remain Producing sweet, fragrant and beautiful fruits therein?

Definitions

सामान्यावप्यर्थौ स्फुटमुपमायाः स्वरुपतोऽपेतौ । निर्दिश्येते यस्मिन्नुभयन्यासः स विज्ञेयः ॥ रु. का. ३ सामान्यं सामान्येन यत्समर्थ्यते स उभयन्यासः । वा. का. ३ पर्यायेण द्वयोस्तस्मिनुपमेयोपमा मता । प्र. य. ३६६; सा. १० पर्यायेण द्वयोरेतदुपमेयोपमा मता । उपमानोपमेयत्वं द्वयोः पर्यायतो यदि । उपमेयोपमा सा स्यात् ॥ चि. पर्यायेण द्वयोस्तच्चेदुपमेयोपमा मता। कु. ३.११ विपर्यास उपमेयोपमा द्वयोः (उपमानोपमेययोः) । अ. कौ. ८.२३४ तृतीयसदृशव्यवच्छेदबुद्धिफलकवर्णविषयीभूतं परस्परमुपमानोपमेयभावमापन्नयोरर्थयोः सादृश्यं सुन्दरमपमेयोपमा । र. २

<headword>उल्लास</headword>

उल्लासः Ullāsaḥ :Reflection :

ut √las (to shine, flash, sparkle, glitter) a (<ghan) = ullāsa means joy, delight, splendour, flash, sparkle etc. When the merits or defects of a thing or person are attributed to some other thing or person, the figure of speech is called Ullāsa. Here this attribution is made in such a way that the merits or demerits appear, as if, originally belonging to one on whom they are attributed. This figure has been defined by Jayadeva, Appayya and Jagannātha, but there is a major difference in them.

The reflection may happen in various ways: (a) merits of one reflected as defects in other, (b) merits reflected as defects, (c) defects reflected as defects (d) defects reflected as merits

But Mammaṭa observes that this figure is only a variety of Kāvyalinga (Poetical Cause)

eg 1. tadbhāgyaṃ dhanasyaiva / yannāśrayati sajjanam. तद्भाग्यं धनस्यैव / यन्नाश्रयति सज्जनम् । It's indeed misfortune for riches That it resorts not to the virtuous always.

In olden days, it was a traditional conception that virtues and wealth are two poles apart and therefore, the virtuous were believed to be devoid of riches and on the contrary, the rich were devoid of virtues. So the poet here asserts that wealth and riches though highly valued by all are condemned because of their association with low-garded people.

Definitions

उल्लासोऽन्यमहिम्ना चेद्दोषो ह्यन्यत्र वर्ण्यते । च. ५.६९ एकस्य गुणदोषाभ्यामुल्लासोऽन्यस्य तौ यदि । कु. ६६.१३३ अन्यदीयगुणदोषप्रयुक्तमन्यस्य गुणदोषयोराधानमुल्लासः । र. २

<headword>उल्लेख</headword>

उल्लेखः Ullekhaḥ : Allusion :

The word ullekha (ut lekha) literally means mention, reference, allusion, report, statement etc. When one important object is very fancifully accepted in many ways or when any particular object or person being significant by its or his multidimensional features or qualities is described by others according to their impressions about the object or the person, it is known as Ullekha or Allusion.

Here Viśvanātha refers to the views of some critics who, according to him, think that this figure always remains associated with some other figures such as Rūpaka, Pariņāma, Atiśayokti or Bhrāntimān and the beauty of expression lies not in the statement of mentioning one thing in various aspects, but in the quality of similitude or exaggeration. But Viśvanātha himself rejects this view totally and explains that Ullekha is twofold (i) pure (suddhā) and (ii) mixed one (saṃkīrṇā)

In the second variety of this figure, some other figure of speech may be mixed up.

e.g. 1. priya iti gopabadhūbhiḥ śiśuriti vṛddhair adhīśa iti devaiḥ. nārāyaṇa iti bhaktair brahmetyagrāhi yogibhir devaḥ. प्रिय इति गोपबधूभिः शिशुरिति वृद्धैरधीश इति देवैः । नारायण इति भक्तैर्बह्मेत्यग्राहि योगिभिर्देवः ॥ The milkmaids accept Lord as their lover, The aged ones as merely a child, the gods as their director; The worshippers accept him as Nārāyaṇa, the supreme deity, And the saints as Brahman, the eternal reality.

2. ugraḥ sapatneṣu guṇeṣu bhāsvān rāmaḥ pratīkeṣu raṇeṣu bhīmaḥ. līlāsu lakṣmyā puruṣottamaśceti ityācakṣate rudranṛpaṃ kavīndrāḥ. उग्रः सपत्नेषु गुणेषु भास्वान् रामः प्रतीकेषु रणेषु भीमः । लीलासु लक्ष्म्या पुरुषोत्तमश्चेति इत्याचक्षते रुद्रनृपं कवीन्द्राः ॥ You have been held as terror for the enemy kings, The dignity of all dignified beings. Of all ideal men you are the Rāma, And in the battle you are the Bhīma, In dalliance with Lakṣmi, you are the noblest one-Famous poets thus proclaim the Rudra king in unison.

In the first verse, the acceptance of the Lord in different forms (either human or divine) by different sections of people has been represented in very attractive phraseology.

In the second verse, the mighty king, Rudra by name, has been exalted for his multi-dimensional qualities head and heart. The king has been represented as a high profile personality due to his valour, pleasing personality and other shining qualities.

Definitions

एकस्यापि निमित्तवशादनेकधा ग्रहणमुल्लेखः । अ. स. २० बहुभिर्बहुधोल्लेखादेकस्योल्लेखिता मता । च. ५.२३ तत्त्वनिमित्तभेदादेकमनेकैरनेकधा यत्र । उल्लिख्यते स धीरैरुल्लेखः कथ्यतेऽन्वर्थः ॥ ए. ८.१० अर्थ-योग-रुचि-श्लेषैरुल्लेखमनेकधा । ग्रहीतृभेदादेकस्य स उल्लेखः सतां मतः ॥ प्र. य. ३८२ क्वचिद् भेदाद् ग्रहीतृणां विषयाणां तथा क्वचित् । एकस्यानेकधोल्लेखो यः स उल्लेख उच्यते ॥ सा. १०.३७ निमित्तभेदादेकस्य वस्तुनो यदनेकधा । उल्लेखनमनेकेन तमुल्लेखं प्रचक्षते ॥ चि. बहुभिर्बहुधोल्लेखादेकस्योल्लेख इष्यते । कु. ७।२२

<headword>ऊर्जस्वि</headword>

ऊर्जस्वि Ūrjasvi : Speech of Eminence :

This figure belongs to the class of four special alaṃkāras (ie. Rasavat, Preyas, Ūrjasvi and Samāhita). The word ūrjas means energy, power, strength, valour etc. ūrjas vin= ūrjasvin denotes anything with all such qualites.

According to Daṇḍin the alaṃkara Ūrjasvi is an expression of pride. When something is stated with vigour, pride or self-esteem or spirit of eminence, it is Ūrjasvi. Other figures of this group like Rasavat, Preyas are also based on totality of expression arousing any kind of strong and assertive feelings like anger, heroism. The alaṃkāras of this group are related to rasa (sentiments like love, pathos, heroism ), bhāva (feelings like attachment to a person or any object, anger, fear, astonishment), rasa-ābhāsa (improper expression of rasa) and bhāva-ābhāsa (improper expression of feeling ie. bhāva like attachment, sorrow, joy). According to another group of rhetors Ūrjasvi occurs when there is an expression of sentiment or feeling which is improperly connected with the speaker. eg 1. ayaṃ sa raśanotkarṣī / pīna-stana-vimardanaḥ. nābhyurū-jaghanasparśī / nīvī-visraṃsanaḥ karaḥ. अयं स रशनोत्कर्षी / पीनस्तनविमर्दनः । नाभ्युरू-जघनस्पर्शी / नीवीविस्रंसनः करः ॥ This is the hand that pulled the girdle, Pressed the breasts so ample, Touched the navel, loins and buttocks And then loosened the waist-knot

The context of the verse is as follows:

After the great killing of the Mahābhārata war the ladies of the Kaurava family have come to the battle-field in search of their dear and near ones; here one widowed wife laments thus after finding the severed hand of her husband killed therein.

2. bhayādagnis tapati bhayāt tapati sūryaḥ. bhayādindraś ca vāyuś ca mṛtyur dhāvati pañcamaḥ. भयादग्निस्तपति / भयात्तपति सूर्यः । भयादिन्द्रश्च वायुश्च / मृत्युर्धावति पञ्चमः ॥ For fear of him the fire gives heat, the sun shines For fear of him Indra, the celestial king reigns, Väyu, the wind God flows And the God of death brings blows.

Definitions

ऊर्जस्वि रुढाहंकारं युक्तोत्कर्षं च तत् त्रयम् । का. २.२७५ अनौचित्यप्रवृत्तानां कामक्रोधादिकारणात् । भावानां च रसानां च बन्ध ऊर्जस्वि कथ्यते ॥ का. स. ८.५ ऊर्जस्वि-उदात्ताभिधानं पौर्वापर्यप्रणीतयोः । अलंकरणयोर्भूषणत्वं तद्वन्न विद्यते ॥ म. ३.२२ रमभावतदाभासतत्प्रशमानां निबन्धे रसवत् प्रेय ऊर्जस्वि समाहितानि ॥ अ. स. ८३ रसभावतदाभासभावशान्तिनिबन्धनाः । रसवत्प्रेयऊर्जस्विसमाहितमयाभिधाः । च. ५.११२ रसवत्प्रेयऊर्जस्विसमाहितमितिक्रमात् । रसभावरसाभासभावाभासस्य वर्णना ॥ सा. १६.६६ रसभावतदाभासभावशान्तिनिबन्धनाः । चत्वारो रसवत्प्रेय ऊर्जस्वि च समाहितम् ॥ रसाभास भावाभासश्च यत्रापरस्याङ्गं तदूर्जस्वि । कु. २३०

<headword>ऊह</headword>

Ūha ऊह : Doubt:

It is otherwise called Vitarka or Sambhāvanā. In Miṃānsā philosophy, ūha is a technical term. In rhetoric, it is simply a poetic device based on doubt in the form either this or that. Bhoja calls it Ūha, while Appayya and Jayadeva named it Sambhāvanā.

Ūha is a kind of judgement either ending in doubt (sandehānta) or in certainty (niścayānta). The first variety may be threefold in nature ie. based on falsity, based on true idea or the mixture of both. It is the same as Sandeha.

Definitions

ऊहो वितर्कः सन्देहनिर्णयान्ताधिष्ठितः । तत्त्वानुपाती अतत्त्वानुपाती यश्चोभयात्मकः । स निर्णयान्त इतरो मिथ्यामिथ्योभयात्मकः ॥ स. ३.३९.४० संभावनं यदीत्थं स्यादित्यूहोऽन्यप्रसिद्धये । च. ५.४६ संभावना यदीत्थं स्याद् ऊहोऽन्यस्य सिद्धये । कु. १२६

<headword>एकावली</headword>

एकावली Ekāvalī : Chain :

The word ekāvalī (eka āvalī) literally means chain, repetition of the same in successive order. As a figure of speech it belong to the class of chain repetition (ie śṛṅkhalāmūla). It was first introduced by Rudraṭa and then recognised by most of the distinguished rhetoricians.

Like Mālādīpaka Ekāvalī also exhibits a kind of reciprocal superiority. But such superiority in Ekāvalī is always related to the latter one, ie the former one always becomes less superior to the latter one.

eg 1. na tajjalaṃ yanna sucārupankajam na pankajaṃ tat yadalīna-ṣatpadam. na ṣaṭpadoʼsau na juguñja yaḥ kalam na guñjitaṃ tanna jahāra yanmanaḥ. न तज्जलं यन्न सुचारुपंकजम् / न पंकजं तत् यदलीनषट्पदम् । न षट्पदोऽसौ न जुगुञ्ज यः कलम् / न गुञ्जितं तन्न जहार यन्मनः ॥ There was not a single pond which was not charming with lotuses, There was not a single lotus which was not surrounded by bees, Not a single bee that made sweet humming sound, Not a single humming that did not captivate the mind.

Definitions

एकावलीति सेयं यत्रार्थपरम्परा यथालाभम् । आदीयते यथोत्तरविशेषणा स्थित्यपोहाभ्याम् ॥ रु. का. ७.७०६ स्थाप्यतेऽपोह्यते वापि यथापूर्वं परं परम् । विशेषणतया यत्र वस्तु सैकावली द्विधा ॥ का. प्र. यथा पूर्वं परस्य विशेषणतया स्थापनोपहने ॥ अ. स. ५५ पूर्वपूर्वार्थवैशिष्टनिष्ठानामुत्तरोत्तरम् । अर्थानां या विरचना बुधैरेकावली मता ॥ वा. ४.१३६ गृहीतमुक्तरीत्यर्थश्रेणिरेकावली मता। च. ५.८३ यत्र विशेषणभावं पूर्वं पूर्वं प्रति क्रमेणैव । भजति परं परमेषामलंकृतिरेकावली कथिता ॥ ए. ८.८६ यत्रोत्तरोत्तरेषां स्यात् पूर्वं प्रतिक्रमात् । विशेषणत्वकथनमसावेकावली मता ॥ प्र. य. ४३६ पूर्वं पूर्वं प्रति विशेषणत्वेन परं परम् । स्थाप्यतेऽपोह्यते वा चेत् स्यात्तदैकावली द्विधा ॥ सा. १०.३३ पूर्वपूर्वार्थनिष्ठानामर्थानामुत्तरोत्तरं विधिनिषेधाभ्यां विरचनैकावली । वा. का. ३ स्थाप्यते खण्ड्यते वापि पूर्वं पूर्वं परेण यत् । विशेषणतया वस्तु सा द्विघैकावली भवेत् ॥ अ. कौ. ८०३०७ सैव शृङ्खला संसर्गस्य विशेष्यविशेषणभावरूपत्वे एकावली । र. २

<headword>ऐतिह्य</headword>

ऐतिह्यम्  Aitihya: Tradition:

iti ha yya=aitihya means tradition, instruction, legendary account, infallible testimony; it is regarded as one of the valid proofs of cognition and reckoned along with others like pratyakṣa (direct perception), anumāna (inference ) etc. It is recognised as one of the eight figures based on pramāṇa (ie valid knowledge) by Appayya and a few others.

When some traditional statement, basd on sound logic and acceptable in general, is poetically represented, it is known as Aitihya. eg 1. kalyāṇī bata gātheyaṃ laukikī pratibhāti me. eti jīvantamānando naraṃ varṣaśatādapi. कल्याणी बत गाथेयं लौकिकी प्रतिभाति मे । एति जीवन्तमानन्दो नरं वर्षशतादपि ॥ This agreeable maxim, to me like a common one, appears-That joy of living clings to a person even up to hundred years.

Definitions

अष्टौ प्रमाणालंकारा प्रत्यक्षप्रमुखाः क्रमात् । कु. १३१

<headword>कल्पितोपमा</headword>

कल्पितोपमा Kalpitopamā : Extended Simile :

It is kalpita upamā ie a simile based on poetic imagination. Though it is accepted as a variety of simile by the older rhetoricians Vāmana and Rudraṭa have accepted it as a separate figure. According to them, in Upamā (Simile) there should be total and qualitative similitude between two or more things, but when there is similarity due to any special quality or qualities the figure of speech is called Kalpitopamā.

eg 1. caturāsya patir lakṣmyāḥ sarvajñas tvaṃ mahīpate. चतुरास्यपतिर्लक्ष्म्याः सर्वज्ञस्त्वं महीपते । The four-mouthed God is the Lord of prosperity (Lakṣmī). While thou art, O king, the omniscient divinity.

Mythically Brahmā is conceived as the four-mouthed deity who has acquired all sorts of knowledge of spiritualism and hence he is known as the Omniscient One. But here the poet eulogises the king referred to here as the omniscient of all mortals though he is not as divine as the four-mouthed God.

Definition

गुणबाहुल्यतश्च कल्पिता । का सू. ४.२.३ <headword>काकु</headword>

Kāku काकु : Stress :

The word kāku technically means change of voice or tone caused by different emotions such as fear, anger, sorrow. The figure kāku is otherwise called Kākū-vakrokti and considered as a variety of Vakrokti. Mammaṭa and his followers admit two varieties of Vakrokti--one based on paronomasia (śleṣa) and the other based on kāku (ie stress or phonetic change or shift of accent. So we find that the alaṃkāra Kāku is chiefly concerned with phonetic tone of expression. Phonetic quality of syllabic accent is threefold: (i) udātta (acute) (ii) anudātta (grave) (iii) svarita (circumflex)

Such accent system in pronunciation is to be found only in Vedic Sanskrit. Change in accent sometimes affected the meaning there (for example ojas means power, ojas means powerful). But this Vedic accent has not been preserved in classical Sanskrit where change of voice, shift of stress under the influence of strong emotion on the part of the speaker can sometimes change the meaning. This is what is called Kāku. Rudraṭa recognises it as a figure of sound, whereas Vakrokti is considered as both figure of sound as well as figure of sense. But Rājaśekhara and others are not inclined to give Kāku a separate position as a figure of speech.

eg 1. mathnāmi kauravasatam samare na kopat? मथ्रामि कौरवशतं समरे न कोपात् ।

Due to the shift of stress or change of voice the sentence may give the following meanings: (a) I shall not annihilate hundreds of kauravas in the battle through wrath. (b) Shall I not annihilate............wrath? (c) I will kill hundreds of kauravas in the battle, and not through wrath. (d) I will kill hundreds of kauravas not in the battle, but through wrath.

It is a part of a dialogue uttered by Bhīma when he found to his utter surprise that his wife Draupadi is being dragged by the lock of her hair by Duryodhana, their rival, in the game of dice. The sentence without pun in any word gives four different meanings in the same context through a change of tone.

<headword>कारकदीपक</headword>

कारकदीपकम्  Kāraka-dīpakam : Verbal Illuminator :

It is an uncommon and less known figure defined and illustrated by Appayya Dīkṣita only in his Kuvalayānanda. When a number of actions of the same agent are bunched together, it is called Kārakadīpaka.

eg 1. śliṣyati kāmapi cumbati kāmapi kāmapi ramayati rāmām. paśyati sasmita-cāru-parāmaparām anugacchati vāmām. श्लिष्यति कामपि चुम्बति कामपि कामपि रमयति रामाम् । पश्यति सस्मितचारुपरामपरामनुगच्छति वामाम् ॥ (Kṛṣṇa) embraces one cowherd maiden, kisses another, He makes delighted some other, He stares at another smiling beauty And closely follows another charming and pretty.

In this poem of Jayadeva's Gitagovinda, the behaviour of Kṛṣṇa, the divine spouse of the devoted ladies of Vṛndāvana, through different actions like kissing, embracing or entertaining has been described.

Definition

क्रमिकैकगतानां तु गुम्फः कारकदीपकम् । कु. ११७

<headword>कारणमाला</headword>

कारणमाला Kāraṇamālā : Chained Cause :

kāraṇa cause; mālā garland or chain; Kāraṇamālā as a figure of speech occurs when a series of cause and effect is artistically devised in a poetic expression. Here the poet wreaths a set of objects of which each preceding one is presented as being the cause of the succeeding one. Ruyyaka includes it under the group śṛṅkhalā-bandha (serially arranged like a chain). All the definitions of this figure given by rhetoricians are almost the same. Jayaratha and Jagannātha remarked that the method of cause-and-effect may also be arranged in the reverse manner (ie effect and cause). Jagannātha also said that such a juxtaposition of objects (being cause-and-effect by turn the same word and not its synonym) should be preferably repeated in order to clearly exhibit the relation of cause-and-effect.

eg 1. saṃgāt sañjāyate kāmaḥ kāmāt krodhoʼbhijāyate krodhād bhavati sammohaḥ sammohāt smṛtivibhramaḥ. smṛtibhraṃśād buddhināśo buddhināśāt praṇaśyati. संगात् सञ्जायते कामः कामात् क्रोधोऽभिजायते क्रोधाद् भवति सम्मोहः सम्मोहात् स्मृतिविभ्रमः ॥ स्मृतिभ्रंशाद् बुद्धिनाशो बुद्धिनाशात् प्रणश्यति ॥ From attachment springs desire, From desire grows anger, From anger comes infatuation, From infatuation loss of intelligence, From intelligence loss comes nescience, From nescience man gets destruction.

This verse reflects the fall of the human soul through his addiction to gross pleasures of the senses in mundane existence. All the miseries arising out of nescience are the stumbling block in the realisation of the spiritual values of life. The causes of man's downfall from higher spiritual bliss have been represented in a chain system in cause-and-effect relation between the preceding and the succeeding pair.

Definitions

कारणमाला सेयं यथापूर्वमेति कारणताम् । अर्थानां पूर्वार्थाद्भवतीदं सर्वमेवेति ॥ रु. का. ७.८४ यथोत्तरं चेत् पूर्वस्य पूर्वस्यार्थस्य हेतुता । तदा कारणमाला स्यात् । का. प्र. १०.१८६ यथोत्तरं पूर्वस्य हेतुत्वे कारणमाला । हे. का. ३० गुम्फः कारणमाला स्याद्यथाप्राक् प्रान्तकारणैः । च. ५.८५, कु. ४६.१०४ यद्यत्पूर्वं तत्तदथोत्तरं चेत् क्रमेण स्रंश्रयति । हेतुत्वं भवति तदा कारणमालेत्यलंकारः ॥ ए. ८।४५ पूर्वं पूर्वं प्रति यदा हेतुः स्यादुत्तरोत्तरम् । तदा कारणमालाख्यमलंकरणमुच्यते ॥ प्र. य. ४६६ परं परं प्रति यदा पूर्व-पूर्वस्य हेतुता । तदा कारणमाला स्यात् । सा. १० पूर्वस्योत्तरमुत्तरं प्रति हेतुत्वे कारणमाला । वा. का. ३ यथोत्तरं पूर्वर्पूहेतुकस्य तु हेतुता । तदा कारणमाला स्यात् । अ. कौ. ८.२६४

<headword>काव्यलिङ्ग</headword>

काव्यलिङ्गम् Kāvyalingam : Poetical cause :

kāvya is poetry or literature, any poetic expression; linga is cause; but this linga or kāraṇa (ie cause) is quite different from the cause of the matter-of-fact world. This alaṃkāra is otherwise called Kāvyahetu or Kāvyadṛṣtānta. According to Ruyyakā's definition it is Kāvyalinga where one thing is uttered and on hearing this some other thing in remembered or understood. According to Mammaṭa, Jayadeva, Viśvanātha and others it is Kāvyalinga when the hetu (ie cause) brings the knowledge of the sādhya (ie what is to be established, inferred or concluded).

In logic there are three terms relating to inference (ie anumāna): pakṣa: the minor term or the subject of a syllogism, sādhya: the major term, the predicate of a proposition, hetu: middle term, the logical reason, reason for inference.

In general two types of cause (hetu) have been accepted-kāraka and jñāpaka. But Viśvanātha has given threefold division of hetu: jñāpaka, niṣpādaka and samarthaka. Of these three the first one is related to Kāvyaling (Poetical cause ie the subject of our discussion) and the third one to Arthāntaranyāsa (Corroboration).

Earlier rhetoricians (except Bhāmaha) did not recognise Kāvyalinga, but accepted another alaṃkāra named Hetu which is similar to Kāvyalinga in some respect, but not totally identical. But Bhāmaha does not find any logic in accepting Hetu as a figure of speech while Viśvanātha and his followers accepted both Arthāntaranyāsa and Kāvyalinga along with Hetu.

eg 1. jito'si manda-kandarpaṃ / maccitteʼsti trilocanaḥ. जितोऽसि मन्दकन्दर्पं / मच्चित्तेऽस्ति त्रिलोचनः । O you evil-intended Cupid! vanquished thou art Because I have Lord Śiva in my heart.

Definitions

श्रुतमेकं यदन्यत्र स्मृतेरनुभवस्य वा । हेतुतां प्रतिपद्यते काव्यलिङ्गं तदुच्यते ॥ अ. सं. ६ काव्यलिङ्गं हेतोर्वाक्यपदार्थता । का. प्र. १०.१७४ स्यात् काव्यलिङ्गं वागर्थो नूतनार्थसमर्थकः । च. ५.३८ वाक्यार्थो यदि हेतुर्भवति पदार्थो विशेषणद्वारा । द्विविधं कथयन्ति तदलंकारं काव्यलिङ्गमिति ॥ ए. ८.४६ हेतोर्वाक्यपदार्थत्वे काव्यलिङ्गमुदाहृतम् । प्र. य. ४४८ समर्थनीयस्यार्थस्य काव्यलिङ्गं समर्थनम् । कु. ६०.१२१

<headword>क्रम</headword>

क्रमः Kramah : Succession :

The word krama (√kram ac) dennotes order, sequence or succession. As a figure of speech it exhibits some kind of comparison in succession or in an orderly manner through words or meaning which becomes poetically charming. When some objects or things, desired or undesired, under consideration are compared to other objects or things successively, the alaṃkāra is styled krama. But Bhoja's definition of krama is different from the previous one. According to him, perfect arrangement of word and meaning is Krama. It is threefold: (i) proper arrangement of words, (ii) of meaning and (iii) of both word and meaning.

eg 1. tasyāḥ pravṛddha-līlābhir ālāpasmita-dṛṣṭibhiḥ jīyate vallakī-kunda-srag-indīvara-sampadaḥ. तस्याः प्रवृद्धलीलाभिरालापस्मितदृष्टिभिः । जीयते वल्लकी-कुन्द-स्रगिन्दीवरसम्पदः ॥ By her charming dalliance, sweet words and glances Vallakī, kunda, srak and indīvara become defeated.

Definitions

उपमेयोपमानानां क्रमसंबन्धः क्रमः । का. सू. ४.३.१३ शब्दस्य यदि वार्थस्य द्वयोरप्यनयोरथ । भणनं परिपाट्या यत् क्रमः स परिकीर्तितः ॥ स. क. ४.७६

<headword>गति</headword>

गतिः Gatih: Movement:

√gam ti <ktin = gati means movement, speed, going, advancing etc. It is an uncommon figure recognised by Bhoja only. Unlike other figures it has nothing to do with the poetic excellence of word or meaning or dialogue or speech. Gati has been given special importance by Bharata in his Nāṭyaśāstra. On the basis of Bhoja's treatment of this figure it is explained as some sort of stylistic pattern of poetry with regard to phonetic timbre, mode of pronunciation, musical tune or melody. Bhoja considers its importance purely from the literary value when it stands separated from the domain of music and drama.

According to Bhoja Gati is fivefold: (i) drutā (set to quick movement), (ii) madhyā (set to moderate movement), (iii) vilambitā (set to slow movement), (iv) druta-vilambitā (set to a mixture of quick and slow movement), (v) madhya-vilambitā (set to mixture of moderate and slow movement).

The following verse is an example of moderate movement:

eg 1. ayi vijahīhi dṛḍhopagūhanaṃ tyaja nava-sangama-bhīrukaṃ vallabham. aruṇa-karodgama eṣa vartate varatanu sampravadanti kukkuṭāḥ. अयि विजहीहि दृढोपगूहनं त्यज नवसंगमभीरुकं वल्लभम् । अरुण-करोद्गम एष वर्तते वरतनु सम्प्रवदन्ति कुक्कुटाः ॥ Relax thy close embrace, O dame, Leave thy love timid of first union; The cuckoo unites to proclaim Here is now the break of dawn.

<headword>गूढोक्ति</headword>

गूढोक्तिः Gūḍhoktiḥ : Condensed Statement :

gūḍha literally means hidden, concealed, disguised, covered, private etc. and ukti is statement. Therefore, Gūḍhokti rhetorically means a kind of condensed meaning brought forth by the primary sense. It is recognised by a few scholars like Bhoja, Appayya and Keśavamiśra. One variety of the figure Vākovākya is also known as Gūḍhokti. Some examples of such figures prove that the illustrations have generally been taken from popular usage and not from common specimens of literary compositions.

eg 1. purāṇam ityeva na sādhu sarvam. पुराणमित्येव न साधु सधम् । All old is not gold

Definitions

क्रियाकारकसम्बन्धे पादाभिप्रायवस्तुभिः । गोपितैः षड्विधं प्राहुः गूढ गूढार्थवेदिनः ॥ स. २.१५१ गूढोक्तिरन्योद्देश्यं चेद्यदन्यं प्रति कथ्यते । कु. ८७.१५४

<headword>चित्र</headword>

चित्रम् Citram : The Picturesque :

The word citra literally means wonderful, amazing, strange, queer amusing, surprising variegated etc. The figure of speech is called Citra because it appears artistically amusing to the reader by its wonderful features of metrical or versified form, phonetic timbre and movement (forward, backward and crossward). It is primarily a figure of word, still it should be considered a figure of both word and meaning. Citra is twofold: (i) sabda-citra (based on sound or word) and (i) artha-citra (based on meaning).

The first variety is either akṣara-citra (based on syllables of vocal and consonantal structure or word-structure) designing verses in numerous shapes resembling lotus, umbrella, cross, chowry, pitcher etc, or gati-citra (based on similar devices through drawings giving shapes of moving patterns like horse, elephant, cow. Such types of phonetic structure (as we find in alliterative pattern) or word arrangement (which we find in various patterns of yamaka) are undoubtedly very attractive, but sometimes excessive patternisation through phonetic acrobatics or verbal jugglery (such as the use of single, double or triple vowels or consonants in successive order) becomes very dull and montonous.

It is important to note that in Sanskrit literature a variety of poetic composition (kāvya) is termed as citra-kāvya which, according to the critics, is designated as third grade poetry (adhama kāvya). Perhaps this term was first applied to this particular figure of our discussion and then it was shifted to a class of poetry as a whole, which was specially cultivated by some epic writers as well as a few overenthusiastic poets with the sole intention of exhibiting their skill in the composition of artful poetry, specially in dealing with Anuprāsa (Alliteration), Yamaka (Assonance) and Śleṣa (Pun). Ānandavardhana remarked that such type of composition can be called poetry very loosely and found to be written by ordinary poets. Mammaṭa also says that such composition is very unfortunately called poetry.

eg 1. yamaka-citra or wonder of Assonance: sa me samāsamo masaḥ sā me māsasamā samā. yo yātayā tayā yāti yā yātyāyātayā tayā. That month seems to me a year, Which passes when my love is gone; That year seems to me a month, Which fades after her return.

2. Wonder of triple consonants: devānāṃ nandano devo nodano veda-nindanām. divaṃ duddāva nādena dāne dānava-nandinaḥ. देवानां नन्दनो देवो नोदनो वेदनिन्दनाम् । दिवं दुद्दाव नादेन दाने दानवनन्दिनः ॥ Towards gods the Lord is the delighter, For the Veda-defilers, the tormentor, By loud voice He reigned in heaven, And by his bounty delighted the demon.

Definitions

गोष्ठ्यां कुतूहलाध्यायी वाग्बन्धश्चित्रमुच्यते । अ. ३४३.२२ भङ्गयन्तरकृत्यक्रमवर्णनिमित्तानि वस्तुरूपाणि । साङ्कानि विचित्राणि चर्यन्ते यत्र तच्चित्रम् ॥ रु. का. ५.१ वर्णस्थानस्वराकारगतिबन्धान् प्रतीह यः । नियमस्तद्बुधैः षोढा चित्रमित्यभिधीयते ॥ स. २.१०९ तच्चित्रं यत्र वर्णानां खडूगाद्याकृतिहेतुता । का. १२१.८५ वर्णानां खडूगाद्याकृतिहेतुत्वे चित्रम् । अ. स. १० स्वरव्यञ्जनस्थानगत्याकारनियमच्युतगूढादिचित्रम् । हे. का. १०८.५.४ काव्यवित्प्रवरैश्चित्रं खड्गबन्धादिलक्ष्यते । च. ५.६ पद्माद्याकारहेतुत्वे चित्रालंकार इष्यते । प्र. य. ७.११ पद्माद्याकारहेतुत्वे वर्णानां चित्र उच्यते । सा. १० यत्राङ्गसंधितद्रूपैरक्षरैर्वस्तुकल्पना । सत्यां प्रसक्तो यच्चित्रं तच्चित्रं चित्रकृच्च यत् ॥ वा. का. ४.७

<headword>छेकोक्ति</headword>

छेकोक्तिः Chekoktiḥ: Elite Maxim :

cheka means the elite; ukti is statement, therefore chekokti literally means a polished statement, learned expression or scholarly idea. Though Appayya admits it as a separate figure it should be treated as a variety of Lokoktiḥ (Popular Maxim )

eg 1. bhujanga eva jānīte bhujangācaraṇaṃ sakhe. भुजंग एव जानीते भुजंगाचरणं सखे । Only a serpent knows what a serpent does.

Here the primary sense is related to the behaviour of a snake; but the suggested sense is quite different. The word bujanga figuratively implies a person as clever as a serpent and hence a gallant, paramour or debauch etc.

Definitions

छेकोक्तिर्यदि लोकोक्तेः स्यादर्थान्तरगर्भिता । कु. ६१.१५८

<headword>जाति</headword>

जातिः Jātiḥ : Natural Description :

The word jāti denotes a class, genus etc. This figure is otherwise called Svabhāvokti. Rhetors like Rudraṭa, Bhoja, Vāgbhaṭa and Hemacandra prefer the title Jāti while others call it Svabhāvokti. The figure occurs in the following ways: a) when one object is stated to be present in different conditions due to its form, attributes, placement etc, b) when some object is described in its natural position, behaviour, form, appearance etc.

But such description should be poetically beautiful as well as agreeable and not vulgar or obscene in any way.

Definitions

संस्थानावस्थानक्रियादि यद्यस्य यादृशं भवति लोके चिरप्रसिद्धं तत्कथनमनन्यथा जातिः ॥ रु.का. ७.३० स्वभावाख्यानं जातिः । हे. का. ६.१५ नानावस्थासु जायन्ते यानि रूपाणि वस्तुनः । स्वेभ्यः स्वेभ्यो निसर्गेभ्यस्तानि जातिं प्रचक्षते ॥ तत्र स्वरूपसंस्थानमवस्थानं तथैव च । वेशो व्यापार इत्यादेः प्रभेदैर्बहुधास्थितम् ॥ स ३.७ यथास्थितवस्तुवर्णनमग्राम्यं जातिः । वा. का. ३ यस्य वस्तुनो यत्स्वभावता तदाख्यानं स्वभावः । अ. शे. ४.४

<headword>तद्गुण</headword>

तद्गुणः Tadguṇaḥ : Borrower :

Tad means the thing or person concerned, guna is merit or quality. As a figure of speech Tadguṇa is the acceptance or borrowing of other's qualities after giving up one's own. When two different objects cannot be separately identified due to some qualitative similitude between them, it is known as Tadguṇa. Here the borrower (ie. the subject of discussion) is represented as inferior to that which borrows (ie the standard of comparison).

Tadguṇa, Milita and Sāmānya have close resemblance among them since the difference between the referent and the non-referent is never given prominence in all of them. Still there is some difference in quality. In Milita, one object is completely overshadowed by the other. In Sāmānya, two objects appear identical due to their basic features or qualities. Tadguṇa is also different from Bhrānti due to the fact that in the latter one thing is mistakenly accepted as the other. Jagannātha says that close similarity, as we find in such alaṃkāras, also occurs in many other figures too (for example Rūpaka, Pariṇāma and Atiśayokti) due to the quality of non-difference (abheda) between the object of comparison and standard of comparison; but all these have been recognised as separate alaṃkāras from the point of view that in each case there is a special kind of poetic charm in the expression.

eg 1. padma-rāgāyate nāsāmauktikaṃ te'dhara-tviṣā. पद्मरागायते नासामौक्तिकं तेऽधरत्विषा । Like a ruby thy nose-top set with pearl shines Through the lustre of thy reddish lips.

Here the rosy lips of the damsel compared to ruby appear too close to be identified separately. The similitude between the two has been so finely expressed that the lips of the young lady (ie the upameya) and gem-set nose-top (ie the upamāna) have been closely knit together due to their quality of redhue lustre.

Definitions

यस्मिन्नेकगुणानामर्थानां योगलक्ष्यरूपाणाम् । संसर्गे नानात्वं न लक्ष्यते तद्गुणः स इति ॥ असमानगुणं यस्मिन्नतिबहुलगुणेन वस्तुना वस्तु । संसृष्टं तद्गुणतां धत्तेऽन्यस्तद्गुणः स इति ॥ रु. का. ६.२२,२४ स्वमुत्सृज्य गुणं योगादत्युज्ज्वलगुणस्य यत् । वस्तु तद्गुणतामेति भण्यते स तु तद्गुणः ॥ का. प्र. १० स्वगुणत्यागादत्युकृष्टगुणस्वीकारस्तद्गुणः । अ. स. ७३ तद्गुणः स्वगुणत्यागादन्यतः स्वगुणोदयः । च. ४.६८ अधिकगुणाङ्गीकरणं स्वगुणत्यागेन तद्गुणः कथितः। ए. ८.६५ तद्गुणः स्वगुणत्यागादन्योत्कृष्टगुणाहतिः । प्र. य. ४१५ तद्गुणः स्वगुणत्यागादत्युत्कृष्टगुणग्रहः । सा. १०, कु. ७५.१४२ यत्र वस्तु स्वगुणमुत्सृज्यान्यगुणयोगात्तद्गुणतामेति स तद्गुणः । वा. का. ३ स्वगुणं त्यक्त्वा प्रगुणस्य समीपगम् । तस्यैव गुणमादत्ते यद्वस्तु स्यात् स तद्गुणः ॥ अ. कौ. ८.३१६ स्वगुणत्यागुपूर्वकं स्वसन्निहितवस्त्वन्तरसंबन्धिगुणग्रहणं तद्गुणः । र. २

<headword>तुल्ययोगिता</headword>

तुल्ययोगिता Tulyayogitā : Equal Matching :

tulya means equal, similar, identical, yogitā means the state of mutual combination, joining, association. Tulyayogitā simply means equal pairing or identical matching by a common property or attribute. In rhetorical use, it is a kind of poetical expression which shows the combination of two or more objects, mutually relevant or irrelevant, corelated or not, with one and the same attribute in the form of quality or action. Such combination of things is really intended to focus an idea of praise or blame on either of the two sides. The very name of the figure signifies its sense ie tulyayoga or association of two or more by identical quality.

Other features of the figure are as follows: (i) The objects or things combined by some identical quality may be mutually relevant or irrelevant, co-related or not, ie. the relation of upameya and upamāna or prastuta aprastuta or prakṛta and aprakṛta may exist or not. (ii) Co-relation or combination is made possible by some attribute applicable to both. (iii) Though the idea of similitude is present here yet it is always implied.

Kuntaka criticises the views mentioned above and concludes that Tulyayogita should not be accepted as a separate figure since the different varieties of it fall under Upamā or Nidarśanā.

eg 1. samkucanti sarojāni svairiņī-vadanāni ca. संकुचन्ति सरोजानि स्वैरिणीवदनानि च । The lotuses as well as the faces of the wanton women are closing up. Definitions

विवक्षितगुणोत्कृष्टैर्यत् समीकृत्य कस्यचित् । कीर्तनं स्तुतिनिन्दार्थं सा मता तुल्ययोगिता ॥ का. २.३३० न्यूनस्यापि विशिष्टेन गुणसाम्यविवक्षया । तुल्यकार्यक्रियायोगादित्युक्ता तुल्ययोगिता ॥ भा. का. ३.२७ उपमानोपमेयोक्तिशून्यैरप्रस्तुतैर्वचः । साम्याभिघायि प्रस्ताववाग्भिर्वा तुल्ययोगिता ॥ अ. सं. ५ विशिष्टेण साम्यार्थमेककालक्रियायोगस्तुल्ययोगिता । का. सू. ४.३.२६ विवक्षितगुणोत्कृष्टैर्यत् समीकृत्य कस्यचित् । कीर्तनं स्तुतिनिन्दार्थं सा मता तुल्ययोगिता ॥ स. क. ४.५५ नियतानां सकृद्धर्मः सा पुनस्तुल्ययोगिता । का. प्र. १०.१५८ औपम्यस्य गम्यत्वे पदार्थगतत्वेन प्रस्तुतानामप्रस्तुनां वा समानधर्माभिसम्बन्धे तुल्ययोगिता । अ. सं. २४ उपमेयं समीकर्तुमुपमानेन योज्यते । तुल्यैककालक्रियया यत्र सा तुल्ययोगिता ॥ वा. ४.८८ क्रियादिभिरनेकस्य तुल्यता तुल्ययोगिता । च. ५.४६ औपम्यगम्यतायां प्रकृतानां तुल्यघर्मसंबन्धे । अप्रकृतानामथवा चतुर्विघा तुल्ययोगिता ज्ञेया॥ ए. ८.१४ प्रस्तुतानां तथान्येषां केवलं तुल्यधर्मतः औपम्यं गम्यते यत्र सा मता तुल्ययोगिता ॥ प्र. य. ४.२८ अन्ये सुखनिमित्ते च दुःखहेतौ च वस्तुनि । स्तुतिनिन्दार्थमेवाहुस्तुल्यस्वे तुल्ययोगिताम् ॥ स. ४.५५ पदार्थानां प्रस्तुतानामन्येषां वा यदा भवेत् । एकधर्माभिसम्बन्धः स्यात्तदा तुल्ययोगिता ॥ सा. १०.४६ वर्ण्यानामितरेषां वा धर्म्यैक्यं तुल्ययोगिता । कु. १४.४४ प्रकृतानाञ्चैकदोक्तिरुच्यते तुल्ययोगिता । अ. कौ. ८.२६६ प्रकृतानामेवाप्रकृतानामेव वा गुणक्रियादिरूपैकधर्मान्वयस्तुल्ययोगिता ।

<headword>दीपक</headword>

दीपकम् Dīpakam: Illuminator :

The name Dīpaka ( dīpa ka light) is self-expressive. A light illuminates not only its own self but also other things associated with it. The figurative expression in Dīpaka serves as a light that enkindles both the contextual as well as the non-contextual through some special features. This alaṃkāra occurs when the prastuta and the aprastuta both become mutually related with the same attribute. This attribute may be represented by jāti, guṇa, dravya or kriyā. (ie genus, attribute, object or action). Therefore, the main features of the figure may be ascertained thus:

a) the special attribute of the prastuta or prākaraṇika or upameya (ie the object of description) illuminates not only its own self but also the aprastuta (ie the non-contextual related to the contextual), b) any quality or attribute either of the prastuta or the aprastuta is referred to as illuminating the other. c) the upameya and the upamāna stand inter-related with the same attribute.

Upamā, Tulyayogitā and Dīpaka bear slight difference among themselves. In Upamā likeness of two things is always explicitly stated, but in Dīpaka and Tulyayogitā it is always implied.

In Dīpaka, one attribute co-relates one or many prastuta as well as aprastuta objects, but in Tulyayogitā all objects are either prastuta or aprastuta (ie contextual or non-contextual). But Jagannātha is not ready to accept these two as separate figures since they have, according to him, no special distinguishing feature between them.

eg 1. balāvalepād adhunāpi pūrvavat prabādhyate tena jagajjigīṣuṇā satīva yoṣita prakṛtiś ca niścalā pumāṃsam abhyeti bhavāntareṣvapi. बलावलेपादधुनापि पूर्ववत् प्रबाध्यते तेन जगज्जिगीषुणा । सतीव योषित प्रकृतिश्च निश्चला पुमांसमभ्येति भवान्तरेष्वपि ॥ Owing to pride of power, like before, still now, The demon is tormenting the world, willing to conquer. Like a chaste wife, man's unvacillating nature Approaches him even in other births. Definitions

नानाधिकरणार्थानां शब्दानां संप्रदीपकम् । एकवाक्येन संयुक्तं तद्दीपकमिहोच्यते ॥ ना. १६.५३ जातिक्रियागुणद्रव्यवाचिनैकत्रवर्तिना । सर्ववाक्योपकारश्चेत् तदाहुर्दीपकं .... ॥ का. २.६७ आदिमध्यान्तविषयाः प्राधान्येतरयोगिनः । अन्तर्गतोपमाधर्मा यत्र तद्दीपकं विदुः ॥ अ. सं. १ आदिमध्यान्तविषयं त्रिधा दीपकमिष्यते। भा. का. २.२५ उपमानोपमेयवाक्येष्वेका क्रिया दीपकम् । का. सू. ४.३.१८ यत्रैकमनेकेषां वाक्यार्थानां क्रियापदं भवति । तद्वत्कारकपदमपि तदेतदिति दीपकम्... ॥ रु. का. ७.६४ क्रियाजातिगुणद्रव्यवाचिनैकत्रवर्तिना । सर्ववाक्योपकारश्चेद्दीपकं तन्निगद्यते ॥ स. ४.७७ सकृद्वृत्तिस्तु धर्मस्य प्रकृताप्रकृतात्मनाम् । सैव कियासु बह्वीषु कारकस्येति दीपकम् ॥ का. प्र. १०.१५६ प्रस्तुताप्रस्तुतानां तु दीपकम् । अ. स. १५ आदिमध्यान्तवर्त्येकपदार्थे नार्थसंगतिः । वाक्यस्य यत्र जायते तदुक्तं दीपकं यथा ॥ वा. ४.६६ प्रकृताप्रकृतानां धर्मैक्यं दीपकम् । है. का. ६.७ प्रस्तुताप्रस्तुनां च तुल्यत्वे दीपकं मतम्। च. ५.५० दीपकैकावलीयोगान्मालादीपकमुच्यते । च. ५.८७ मिलितानां तथैषां दीपकमित्युच्यते । ए. ८.१६ प्रस्तुताप्रस्तुतानां तु साम्यत्वे तुल्यधर्मतः । औपम्यं गम्यते यत्र दीपकं तन्निगद्यते ॥ प्र. य. ४२६ अप्रस्तुतप्रस्तुतयोर्दीपकं तु निगद्यते । सा. १०.४८ आदिमध्यवर्तिनैकेन जातिक्रियागुणद्रव्यरूपिणा पदार्थेन यत्रार्थसंगतिस्तद्दीपकम् । वा. का. ३ समस्तवाक्योपकारकत्वं दीपकत्वम् । अ. शे. ४.४ वदन्ति वर्ण्यावर्ण्यानां धर्मैक्यं दीपकं बुधाः । कु. १५.४८ कारकैक्ये क्रिया बह्वो व्यत्ययेऽपि च दीपकम् । अ. कौ. ८.६४ प्रकृतानामप्रकृतानाञ्चैकसाधारणधर्मान्वयो दीपकम् । र. २ <headword>दृष्टान्त</headword>

दृष्टान्तः Dṛṣṭāntaḥ : Exemplification :

The word dṛṣṭānta simply means an example, illustration or instance. Etymologically it is dṛṣṭa meaning (√dṛś ta <kta) found, seen or proved and antaḥ meaning the final ascertainment, the truth, the result. So Dṛṣṭānta rhetorically means concluding ascertainment about the subject of discussion. It is Dṛṣtānta where the subject of discussion or the intended object is finally proved, confirmed or ascertained by an example presented therein as an illustration.

It is Udbhaṭa who recognised this figure of speech for the first time. According to him, in this figurative expression, an object or its attributes are reflected on another object similar to it. Therefore, it is a kind of reflective representation of an identical object. Dṛṣṭānta is an assertion illustrated by an example.

Conditions of Dṛṣṭānta are as follows: (i) the two objects based on similitude are connected by the relation of type-and-prototype (bimba-pratibimba), (ii) words like yathā, iva denoting resemblance are not directly used, (iii) the idea of mutual similitude between the two is always implied.

But the mutual relation of type-and-prototype being the basic feature of this figure has not been mentioned by all. According to Bhoja, Dṛṣṭānta is the same as Sāmya (The Equal) which has fourfold varieties -- Pūrva (the former), uttara (the latter), sama (the equal) and the viparīta (the opposite). Dṛṣṭānta is distinct from Prativastūpamā (Peculiar Simile) in some respects though there is some sort of implied resemblance in both of them. In Dṛṣṭānta, the attributes expressed in two sentences are similar but not identical, while in Prativastūpamā, the attribute as stated in both the statements though same in quality is stated in different words.

e.g. 1. aviditaguṇāpi satkavi-bhaṇitiḥ karṇeṣu vamati madhu-dhārām, anadhigata-parimalāpi hi harati dṛśaṃ mālatī-mālā. अविदितगुणापि सत्कविभणितिः कर्णेषु वमति मधुधाराम् । अनधिगत-परिमलापि हि हरति दृशं मालतीमाला ॥ Poetry of a true poet pours on the ears stream of delight Even if its poetic qualities are not (instantaneously) felt A garland of jasmine captivates our sight. Even if its fragrance is not (thereby) smelt.

Here we find indirect similitude between poetry and jasmine. Both these captivate our hearts by their charm. When we cultivate the beauties of word and meaning of poetry and the fragrance of the flower they appear more and more attractive. The present idea has been expressed in two separate sentences interlinked by the relation of upameya and upamāna through the mutual agreement of type-and-prototype. The attributes of the two (ie poet's composition and the garland or a composition of jasmine) though closely similar are not identical.

Definitions

इष्टस्थार्थस्य विस्पष्टप्रतिविम्बनिदर्शनम् । यथेवादिपदैः शून्यं बुधैर्दृष्टान्त उच्यते ॥ अ. सं ६ अर्थविशेषः पूर्वं यादृङ् न्यस्तो विवक्षितेतरयोः । तादृशमन्यं न्यस्येद्यत्र पुनः सोऽत्र दृष्टान्तः ॥ रु. का. ८.६४ दृष्टान्तः पुनरेतेषां सर्वेषां प्रतिबिम्बनम् । का. प्र. १०.१५५ तस्यापि बिम्बप्रतिबिम्बभावतया निर्देशे दृष्टान्तः । अ. स. २७ अन्वयख्यापनं यत्र क्रियया स्वतदर्थयोः । दृष्टान्तं तमिति प्राहुरलंकारं मनीषिणः । वा. ४.८२ चेद्विम्बप्रतिबिम्बत्वं दृष्टान्तस्तदलंकृत्तिः । च. ५.५४ बिम्बप्रतिबिम्बत्वं यद्युपमानोपमेययोर्भवति । धर्मस्यापि तदानीं दृष्टान्तः कथ्यते द्विविधः ॥ ए. ८.१८ यत्र वाक्यद्वये बिम्बप्रतिबिम्बतयोच्यते । सामान्यधर्मो वाक्यज्ञैः स दृष्टान्तो निगद्यते ॥ प्र. ४३२ दृष्टान्तस्तु सधर्मस्य वस्तुनः प्रतिबिम्बनम् । सा. १० प्रस्तुतार्थप्रसिद्ध्यै निदर्शनं दृष्टान्तः । वा. का. ३ चेद्बिम्बप्रतिबिम्बत्वं दृष्टान्तस्तदलंकृतिः । कु. १८.५२ सर्वेषामेव धर्माणां दृष्टान्तः प्रतिबिम्बवत् । अ. कौ ८.२६२ प्रकृतवाक्यार्थघटकानामुपमादीनां साधारणधर्मस्य च बिम्बप्रतिबिम्बभावे दृष्टान्तः । र. २ <headword>निदर्शना</headword>

निदर्शना Nidarśanā : Illustration :

ni darśana (√dṛś-ana <anat) ā means an instance, example or illustration. Rhetorically Nidarśanā is an illustrative sentence confirming another similar statement or assertion. Here the contextual and supporting statements are expressed in two different sentences and exhibit a sense of implied similitude based on the relation of type-and-prototype (vastu-prativastu-bhāva) or the original-andreflection (bimba-pratibimba-bhāva). Bhāmaha thinks that the mutual relation implying similitude is established through the connection of action only. But Viśvanātha says that the objective relation between the two statements may be possible in any way or even impossible, while Mammaṭa observes that the relation of unity between them though impossible constitutes this type of similitude.

Nidarśanā bears close resemblance with Dṛṣṭānta. In both cases, words like iva denoting resemblance are absent and, therefore, the relation of similitude is always implied. Still there is some sort of difference between the two figures. In Dṛṣṭānta, each statement is independent and complete in itself and their mutual relation of type-and-prototype becomes isolatedly clear. But in Nidarśanā, the meanings of both the sentences though complete by themselves are mutually dependent and the complete meaning of the entire statement has to be understood through their mutual relation.

Therefore, Nidarśana has two main divisions: (a) one connecting the contextual and the supporting statements through some probable relationship and (b) the other connecting the two through some improbable relationship.

The second variety is again twofold (a) relating to word-meaning and (b) relating to sentence-meaning.

eg 1. janmedaṃ bandhyatāṃ nītaṃ bhava-bhoga-vilipsayā.
kāca-mūlyena vikrotī hanta cintāmaṇir mayā.
जन्मेदं बन्ध्यतां नीतं भवभोगविलिप्सया ।
काचमूल्येन विक्रोती हन्त चिन्तामणिर्मया ॥

For the greed of enjoyments mundane This human existence passed in vain; Alas indeed! the most precious jewel Just at the rate of glass I had to sell.

Definitions

वस्तुनस्तूपमानेन दर्शनं तन्निदर्शनम् । वि. १४.१४ अर्थान्तरप्रवृत्तेन किञ्चित्तत्सदृशं फलम् । सदसद्वा निदर्श्यते यदि स्यात्तन्निदर्शनम् ॥ का. २.३४८ क्रिययैव विशिष्टस्य तदर्थस्योपदर्शनात् । ज्ञेया निदर्शना नाम यथेववतिभिर्विना ॥ भा. का. ३.३३ अभवन्वस्तुसंबन्धो भवन् वा यत्र कल्पयेत् । उपमानोपमेयत्वं कथ्यते सा विदर्शना ॥ रु. का. दृष्टान्तः प्रोक्तसिद्धैय सिद्धेऽर्थे तन्निदर्शनम्। स. ३.३१ निदर्शना अभवन् वस्तुसंबन्ध उपमापरिकल्पकः । का. प्र. १०.१४६ सम्भवताऽसम्भवता वा वस्तुसम्बन्धेन गम्यमानं प्रतिबिम्बकरणं निदर्शना । अ. स. २८ इष्टार्थसिद्धयै दृष्टान्तो निदर्शनम् । हे. का. ६.६ वाक्यार्थयोः सदृशयोरैक्यारोपो निदर्शना । च. ५.५६ प्रतिबिम्बनस्य करणं संभवता यत्र वस्तुयोगेन । गम्यमसंभवता वा निदर्शना सा द्विघाभिमता ॥ ए. ८.१६ असंभवद्धर्मयोगादुपमानोपमेययोः । प्रतिबिम्बक्रिया गम्या यत्र सा स्यान्निदर्शना ॥ प्र. य. ४३३ सम्भवन् वस्तुसम्बन्धोऽसम्भवन् वाऽपि कुत्रचित् । यत्र बिम्बानुबिम्बत्वं बोधयेत् सा निदर्शना ॥ सा. २०.५१ वाक्यार्थयोः सदृशयोरैक्यारोपो निदर्शना । कु. १६.५३ असम्बद्धरूपं यत्तुपमाकृति निदर्शनैषा दृष्टान्तप्राया। अ. कौ. ८.२५२ यत्र क्रियैव वक्ति स्वरूपं हेतुञ्च साऽन्या । अ. कौ. ८.२५३ उपात्तयोरर्थयोरार्थाभेद औपम्यपर्यवसायी निदर्शना । र. २ <headword>निरुक्ति</headword> निरुक्तिः Niruktiḥ : Coined Etymology :

It is nir √vac kti <ktin. Nirukti is a grammatical term denoting the etymology of a word giving the derivative sense. As a figure of speech Nirukti occurs when some new word is coined in analogy with another word and such new formation of a word gives an agreeable meaning. Poets are not bound by the rules of grammar and their innovative search coins new words in different ways. Analogy is one of the ways of constructing new words, and many such words though grammatically incorrect are found to be in vogue in language. Such words are known as poetic licence (ie ārṣaprayoga). Words like śreṣṭhatama (the most best), krandasī (a weeping lady), the most unkindest cut (in Shakespeare) are examples.

Nirukti as a figure is most uncommon and recognised by Appayya and a few only.

eg 1. īdṛśaiścaritair jāne satyaṃ doṣākaro bhavān. ईदृशैश्चरितैर्जाने सत्यं दोषाकरो भवान् । I know from such acts of thine, You are really a person of evil design.

Here the word doṣākaraḥ has been formed on the analogy of guṇākara (ie a man of quality).

Definition

निरुक्तियोगतो नाम्नामन्यार्थत्वप्रकाशनम् । कु. १६४

<headword>निश्चयः</headword>

निश्चयः Niścayaḥ : Ascertainment:

The word niścaya (nir √ci ac) literally means ascertainment, fixed opinion, firm conviction, determination, resolution, positive conclusion etc. Rhetorically it is Niścaya where one thing (ie upameya or the subject in hand) is emphatically established with certainty either by some action (kriyā) or directly by the use of a negative particle (like na) with the denial of another (ie the upamāna or the standard of comparison) which is very similar to the upameya. Here we find extreme similitude between the two and there is every chance of taking one thing as the other. Niścaya is different from Bhrāntimān and Apahnuti. In Apahnuti, the upameya is denied, but in Niścaya there is no such denial. The subject of discussion (ie the prakṛta or upameya) is concealed in Apahnuti, while in Niścaya the subject in hand is firmly established. One variety of Sandeha (Doubt) called Niścayānta is different from it since knowledge of both doubt and ascertainment about the object rests on the same footing in this particular variety of the figure Sandeha.

In Bhrāntimān, the aprakṛta (which is not the subject of discussion ie non-contextual) is mistakenly accepted as the prakṛta (ie the subject of discussion) and the beauty of poetic fancy lies in the very nature of such error.

eg 1. vadanam idaṃ na sarojaṃ nayane nendīvare ete. वदनमिदं न सरोजं नयने नेन्दीवरे एते । This is her face, not a red rose, These are not blue lotuses, but her eyes.

Here the face and the eyes of the beautiful lady are the subjects of discussion and these have been explicitly established while the rose and the lotuses, the standards of comparison have been directly denied by the negative particle na.

Definition

अन्यन्निषिध्य प्रकृतस्थापनं निश्चयः पुनः । सा. १०.३६

<headword>पर्याय</headword>

पर्यायः Paryāyaḥ : Sequence :

pari √i (to go) ghañ = paryāya literally means going round, revolving in order, turning in succession. If the same thing turns out to be present in one place in regular recurrence one by one, the figure is called Paryāya. Here the sequence happens in the form of one assembled in many or many assembled in one in turn. The matterof-fact representation of such sequence brings no poetic charm, and therefore, any such sequence, if based on poetic fancy, deserves to be called a rhetorical figure. It was first introduced by Rudraṭa and then accepted by almost all rhetoricians. The figure of speech Paryāyokta is also called Paryāya, but this Paryāya, the subject of our discussion, is different from Paryāyokta. The figures Samucchaya and Parivṛtti also show some kind of succession or recurrence, but they are different from Paryāya since only Paryāya maintains sequence and none else.

eg 1. yatraiva mugdheti kṛśodarīti / priyeti kānteti mahotsavobhūt. tatraiva daivān vadane madīye / patnīti bhāryeti giraścaranti. यत्रैव मुग्धेति कृशोदरीति प्रियेति कान्तेति महोत्सवोभूत् । तत्रैव दैवान् वदने मदीये पत्नीति भार्येति गिरश्चरन्ति । 'My beauty', 'my slender-waised lady', 'my love', 'my sweetie'-All such words of endearment were great joy for me. But in the same mouth, by chance, I do strike Such word 'my wife,' 'my mistress' and the like.

2. sthitaḥ kṣaṇam pakṣmasu tāḍitādharāḥ payodharotsedha-nipāta-cūrnitāḥ. balīṣu tasyāḥ skhalitāḥ prapedire cirena nābhim prathamodabindavaḥ. sthitāḥ kṣaṇaṃ pakṣmasu tāḍitādharāḥ payodharotsedha-nipāta-cūrṇitāḥ. balīṣu tasyāḥ skhalitāḥ  prapedire cireṇa nābhiṃ prathamodabindavaḥ. स्थिताः क्षणं पक्ष्मसु ताडिताधराः / पयोधरोत्सेधनिपातचूर्णिताः । बलीषु तस्याः स्खलिताः रस्वलिताः प्रपेदिरे / चिरेण नाभिं प्रथमोदबिन्दवः ॥ The first rain-drops rested for a while, on her eye-lashes, Then broke down striking against her nether lip, As they fell on the elevation of her breasts, And thence stumbling through the three folds of the waist Reached, after a long delay, her navel deep.

The first example expresses the psychological changes about the relation of the couple. Previously they were deeply enamoured by their romantic attachment, but now that bond has undergone a sea change; therefore, the husband expresses his melancholy over this change which can be easily understood through the words addressed to her wife. The wife remains the same; but the terms of address have changed in succession.

The second verse describes how some raindrops fall in succession from the eyelashes to the navel through the lips, the breasts and the abdomen while Pārvatī, the young princess of the mountain-king was practising austerities in the open sorroundings of the Himalaya with the sole intention of securing Śiva, the Lord, as her husband.

Definitions

वस्तु विवक्षितवस्तुप्रतिपादनशक्तमसदृशं तस्य । यदजनकमजन्यं वा तत्कथनं यत्स पर्यायः ॥ यत्रैकमनेकस्मिन्ननेकमेकत्र वा क्रमेण स्यात् । वस्तु सुखादिप्रतिकृति क्रियते वान्यः स पर्यायः । रु. का. ७.४२, ४४ मिषं यदुक्तिभङ्गिर्यावसरो यः स सूरिभिः । निराकाङ्क्षोऽथ साकाङ्क्षः पर्याय इति गीयते ॥ स. ४.८० एकं क्रमेणैकस्मिन् पर्यायः । का. प्र. १०.१८० एकमनेकस्मिन्ननेकमेकस्मिन् क्रमेण पर्यायः । अ. स. ६३ एकस्मिन्नाधारेऽनेकमाधेयं यत् स द्वितीयः पर्यायः । अ. स. ६३ पर्यायश्चेदनेकत्र स्यादेकस्य समन्वयः । च. ५.६० एकस्मिन् यदनेकं क्रमादनेकत्र वा भवत्येकम् । तमलंकारनिरूपणनिपुणाः पर्यायमब्रुवत् ॥ ए. ८.५१ क्रमेणैकमनेकस्मिन्नाधारे वर्तते यदि । एकस्मिन्नथवानेकं पर्यायालंकृतिर्मता ॥ प्र. य. ४६४ क्वचिदेकमनेकस्मिन्ननेकं चैकगं क्रमात् । भवति क्रियते वा चेत्तदा पर्याय इष्यते ॥ सा. १०.७६ एकमनेकस्मिन् क्रमेण भवति स पर्यायः । वा. का. ३ पर्यायो यदि पर्यायेणैकस्यानेकसंश्रयः । कु. ५१.११० एकस्मिन् यद्यनेकं वा पर्यायः सोऽपि सम्मतः । कु. ५१.१११ क्रमेणानेकाधिकरणकमेकमाधेयमेकः पर्यायः । क्रमेणानेकाधेयकमेकमधिकरणमपरः । र. २

<headword>पर्यायोक्ति</headword>

पर्यायोक्तिः Paryāyoktiḥ : Periphrasis :

It is paryāya ukti (pari √i to go ac, √vac to speak kti <ktin). Paryāya literally means in turn, in succession, in fixed order; ukti means expression or statement. When the primary sense brings through it another significant implied sense in a charming way, the figure of speech is known as Paryāyokti. Earlier rhetoricians like Bhāmaha and Udbhaṭa are of opinion that the connotation here is widely different from the denotation. Here the primary sense lies in the surface structure and the suggestive sense has to be located in the deep structure. Ānandavardhana observed that this alaṃkāra should be treated as a variety of dhvani (ie suggested sense); but in his opinion, here the primary sense is so poetically represented that it appears more charming than the suggested one. Mammaṭa, Jagannātha and their followers observe that its scope should not be limited to a variety of dhvani only. They recognise it as a very prominent figure of speech. The Ekāvalī explains that the presence of some sort of suggested meaning is less important here, but the primary sense bringing out the suggestive sense appears more important and serves as the sole idea of its artistic refinement.

This figure is otherwise known as Paryāya and different from the figure of the same nomenclature. Greek Periphrasis is peri around, phrasis saying; for example -

The cup that cheers but not inebriates (ie a cup of tea).

eg 1.śikhariṇi kva nu nāma kiyacciraṃ kim abhidhānam asāvakarot tapaḥ, taruṇi yeta tavādhara-pāṭalaṃ daśati bimbaphalaṃ śuka-śāvakaḥ. शिखरिणि क्व नु नाम कियच्चिरं किमभिधानमसावकरोत्तपः । तरुणि येत तवाधरपाटलं दशति बिम्बफलं शुकशावकः ॥ On which mountain and how long Did it perform penance of what type? For which he (the young parrot) peeks the bimba fruit That is as crimson as your lower lip.

The context of the poem is as follows:

While waiting for his lady love in the woodland the lover saw a parrot peeking a redhue bimba fruit which reminds him of the rosy lips of his belove girl. So he fancies that the bird, unlike him, has been very fortunate due to his virtues accumulated by penance and that is why he is peeking the fruit which imitates in beauty the charming lips of the lady love. Here the suggestive sense implies that the lover eagerly fancies how he would imprint a kiss on the lips of his beloved. Definitions

अर्थमिष्टमनाख्याय साक्षात्तस्यैव सिद्धये । यत्प्रकारान्तराख्यानं पर्यायोक्तं तदिष्यते ॥ का. २.२२६ पर्यायोक्तं यदन्येन प्रकारेणाभिधीयते । भा. का. ३.८ पर्यायोक्तं यदन्येन प्रकारेणाभिधीयते । वाच्यवाचकवृत्तिभ्यां शून्येनावगमात्मना ॥ अ. सं. ४ पर्यायोक्तं विना वाच्यवाचकत्वेन यद्वचः । का. प्र. १०.१३५ गम्यस्यापि भङ्गयन्तरेणभिधानं पर्यायोक्तम् । अ. स. ३७ अतत्परतया यत्र जल्पमानेन वस्तुना । विवक्षितं प्रतीयते पर्यायोक्तिरियं यथा ॥ वा. ४.१० व्यङ्गस्योक्तिः पर्यायोक्तम् । है. का. ६.६ कार्याद्यैः प्रस्तुतैरुक्तैः पर्यायोक्तिं प्रचक्षते । च. ५.६८ यत्र व्यङ्गयास्य सतो हेतोः कार्याभिधानभङ्गीभिः । स्यादभिधानं सुधियः पर्यायोक्तं विदुस्तदिदम् ॥ ए. ८.२६ कारणं गम्यते यत्र प्रस्तुतात् कार्यवर्णनात् । प्रस्तुतत्वेन संबद्धं तत् पर्यायोक्तमुच्यते ॥ प्र. य. ४४६ पर्यायोक्तं यदा भङ्गया गम्यमेवाभिधीयते । सा. १०.६० ध्वनिताभिधानं पर्यायोक्तिः । वा. का. ३ पर्यायोक्तं तु गम्यस्य वचो भङ्गयन्तराश्रयम् । कु. २६.६८ पर्यायोक्तं तदप्याहुर्यद् व्याजेनेष्टसाधनम् । कु. २६, ६६ विना वाचकवाच्यत्वं यत्र वस्तु प्रतीयते । पर्यायोक्तं तत् । अ. कौ. ८.२८३ प्रस्तुतत्वे द्वयोः कार्यात् कारणं यत्र गम्यते । पर्यायेणोच्चार्यमाणत्वात् पर्यायोक्तं तदुच्यते । र. २ विवक्षितार्थस्य भङ्गयन्तरेण प्रतिपादनं पर्यायोक्तम् । र. २

<headword>परिकर</headword>

परिकरः  Parikarah : Significance :

pari √kṛ a < ac literally means significant, additional, excessive etc. As a figure Parikara is a poetic statement having some significant epithets about something. Such a statement might have one or more than one such epithet bringing some sort of prominence about the object or the person concerned. Here the significant epithets or coined phrases may also imply some suggestive sense, but the expressed sense is more charming than the suggested one. There is a difference of opinion among the rhetoricians about the matter whether one significant epithet is enough to bring out the desired meaning or a number of epithets are necessary. Mammaṭa and Ruyyaka say that a single epithet may not produce the desired result, and therefore, there should be a few such phrases involving a paradigmatic relation between the literal element and the figurative expression. Therefore, all the epithets should be literally very significant to the context.Jagannātha does not accept the opinion of Mammaṭa that only one significant adjective is not capable of bringing the desired prominence in the statement.

Vidyādhara and Appayya have mentioned another such figure called Parikarānkura where some nominal word (viśeṣya) is significant. But the adjective word (ie viśeṣaṇa) of Parikara may be taken as significant for both.

Therefore, Parikarānkura is not different from Parikara in any way.

eg 1. sarvāśuci-nidhānasya kṛtaghrasya vināśinaḥ. śarīrakasyāpi kṛte mūḍhāḥ pāpāni kurvate. सर्वाशुचि-निधानस्य कृतघ्रस्य विनाशिनः । शरीरकस्यापि कृते मूढाः पापानि कुर्वते ॥ Only the fools commit sins for the sake of this mortal frame-The store of all impurities, ungrateful and perishable by name.

2. aṃgarāja, senāpate, droṇopahāsin karṇa, rakṣainaṃ bhīmād duḥśāsanam. अंगराज, सेनापते, द्रोणोपहासिन् कर्ण, रक्षैनं भीमाद् दुःशासनम् । O king of anga, O commander-in-chief, O you that made Drona an object of ridicule, save this Duḥśāsana from Bhima.

In the first example, three epithets have been used to signify the impurities of the physiological existence of ours for which we often sacrifice a good many virtues in our life.

In the second example, Karṇa, one of the reputed heroes of the Mahābhārata war, has been addressed by his opponent hero Bhima, to save Duḥśāsana, the opponent king and the principal enemy, who is going to be annihilated by Bhima, for his misdeeds towards Draupadi (Bhima's wife). Here three epithets have been used to highlight the character of Karṇa — angarāja (the king of the renowned anga state), senāpate (the commander-in-chief of the Mahābhārata war after the killing of Drona) and droṇopahāsin (who ridiculed even Drona, the preceptor of marshal arts to the Pāṇḍavas as well as Kauravas).

Definitions

साभिप्रायैः सम्यग्विशेषणैर्वस्तु यद्विशिष्येत । द्रव्यादिभेदभिन्नं चतुर्विधः परिकरः स इति ॥ र. का. ९.७२ क्रियाकारकसम्बन्धिसाध्यदृष्टान्तवस्तुषु । क्रियापदाद्युपस्कारमाहुः परिकरं बुधाः ॥ स. ४.७२ उपमारूपकादीनां शब्दार्थोभयभङ्गिभिः । साधर्म्यात्पादनं यत् तमन्ये परिकरं विदुः । विशेषणैर्यत्साकूतैरुक्तिः परिकरस्तु सः । का. प्र. १०.१७३ विशेषणसाभिप्रायत्वं परिकरः । अ. स. ३३ अलंकारः परिकरः साभिप्राये विशेषणे । च. ५.३६ साभिप्राये विशेषणे तु भवेत् परिकराङ्कुरः। च. ५.४० विलसति विशेषणानां प्रतीयमानार्थगर्भता यत्र । सहृदयहृदयाह्लादी परिकरनामा स निर्दिष्टः ॥ तादृक् किमपि विशेष्यं साभिप्रायत्वमश्नुते यत्र । स परिकराङ्कुरनामालंकारः कीर्तितः कविभिः ॥ ए. ८.२५ यत्राभिप्रायगर्भा स्याद्विशेषणपरम्परा । तत्राभिप्रायविदुषामसौ परिकरो मतः ॥ प्र. य. ८ उक्तैर्विशेषणैः साभिप्रायैः परिकरो मतः । सा. १०.५७ साभिप्रायविशेषणैर्भक्तिः परिकरः । वा. ३ अलंकारः परिकरे साभिप्राये विशेषणे । कु. २४.६२ विशेषोक्तिः परिकरः स्यात् साकूतैर्विशेषणैः । अ. कौ. ८.२६१ विशेषणानां साभिप्रायत्वं परिकरः । र. २

<headword>परिवृत्ति</headword>

परिवृत्तिः Parivṛttiḥ : Exchange :

pari √vṛt ti <ktin = parivṛtti figuratively means exchange of one thing for another equal or unequal to it. Therefore, it is a kind of mutual exchange between two equals or unequals or both equal and unequal objects. Here the thing exchanged for may be superior, inferior or equal. Needless to say that this type of exchange is not real but a poetic fancy. Bhāmaha observes that Parivṛtti remains always linked with some sort of Arthāntaranyāsa.

eg 1. dattvā kaṭākṣam eṇākṣī jagrāha hṛdayaṃ mama. mayā tu hṛdayaṃ dattvā gṛhīto madanajvaraḥ. दत्त्वा कटाक्षमेणाक्षी जग्राह हृदयं मम । मया तु हृदयं दत्त्वा गृहीतो मदनज्वरः ॥ The fawn-eyed beauty gave me side glances And took away my heart all above; But I gave my heart to her And received the burning flames of love.

2. kimityapāsyābharaṇāni yauvane tvayā dhṛtaṃ vārdhakyaśobhi valkalam. किमित्यपास्याभरणानि यौवने त्वया धृतं वार्धक्यशोभि वल्कलम् ॥ (O Pārvati) how is it! Decorations of young age you have forshaken, And barks befitting to old age you have taken.

In the first verse, we notice an exchange between the amorous looks of the lady and the offering of the heart by her lover in the first bargain. And again in the second sentence, there is an exchange between heart-offering and love-sickness.

In the second verse, Kālidāsa has described how Pārvatī, the young princess, has adopted barks to cover her body while practising austerities for propitiating Lord Mahādeva. Here the poet fancifully describes a kind of exchange of bark in lieu of valuable decorations and ornaments.

In both cases, the inferiority or superiority of the objects exchanged is but apparent and practically it has nothing to do with the real value of the objects, but it is simply poetic device of figurative expression for the sake of artistic beauty of the idea concerned. Definitions

अर्थानां यो विनिमयः परिवृत्तिस्तु सा स्मृता । का. २.३५१ विशिष्टस्य यदादानमन्यापोहेन वस्तुनः । अर्थान्तरन्यासवती परिवृत्तिरसौ यथा ॥ भा. का. ३.४१ समन्यूनविशिष्टैस्तु कस्यचित्परिवर्तनम् । अर्थानर्थस्वभावं यत्परिवृत्तिरभाणि सा ॥ अ. सं. ५ समविसदृशाभ्यां परिवर्तनं परिवृत्तिः । का. सू. ४.३.१६ युगपद्दानादाने अन्योन्यं वस्तुनोः क्रियेते यत् । क्वचिदुपचर्येते वा प्रसिद्धितः सेति परिवृत्तिः ॥ रु. का. ७.३३ व्यत्ययो वस्तुनो यस्तु यो वा विनिमयो मिथः । परिवृत्तिर्विनिमयो योऽर्थानां स्यात्समासमैः । का. प्र. १०.१७२ समन्यूनाधिकानां समाधिकन्यूनैर्विनिमयः परिवृत्तिः । अ. स. ६२ परिवर्तनमर्थेन सदृशासदृशेन वा । जायतेऽर्थस्य यत्रासौ परिवृत्तिर्मता यथा ॥ वा. ४.२२ पर्यायविनिमयौ परिवृत्तिः । है. का. ६.२२ परिवृत्तिर्विनिमयो न्यूनाभ्यधिकयोर्मिथः । च, ५.६२ अधिकन्यूनसमानां न्यूनाधिकतुल्यवस्तुभिर्यत्र । विनिमय एषा कथिता परिवृत्तिः कोविदैस्त्रिविधा ॥ ए. ८.५२ समन्यूनाधिकानां च यदा विनिमयो भवेत् । साकं समाधिकन्यूनैः परिवृत्तिरसौ मता ॥ प्र. य. ४६८ परिवृत्तिर्विनिमयः समन्यूनाधिकैर्भवेत् । सा. १०.८० समेनासमेन वा व्यत्ययः परिवृत्तिः । वा. का. ३ परिवृत्तिर्विनिमयो न्यूनाभ्यधिकयोर्मिथः । कु. ५२.११२ समासमाभ्यां नियमः परिवृत्तिरुदीर्यते । अ. कौ. ८.२८० परकीययत्किञ्चिद्वस्त्वादानविशिष्टं परस्मै स्वकीययत्किञ्चिद्वस्तु समर्पणं परिवृत्तिः। र. २

<headword>परिणाम</headword>

परिणामः Pariṇāmaḥ: Commutation :

pari nāma (√nam to bend down, to bow, to submit) literally means exchange, alteration or trasformation. When the properties or qualities of one are transfarred to or exchanged with those of another with which the former is compared, the figure is called Pariṇāma. Here the standard of comparison (ie the upamāna or the non-referent) becomes totally identified with the subject of discussion (ie the upameya, the subject in hand). The name of the figure is Pariṇāma because the object superimposed on the subject is exchanged for the quality of the subject of superimposition.

Pariṇāma is slightly different from Rūpaka (Metaphor). In Rūpaka, the subject of discussion (ie upameya) becomes absolutely identical with the upamāna while in Pariṇāma, the non-referent (ie upamāna) becomes superimposed on the thing under discussion, or more simply the topic of discussion surrenders its own identity to the qualities of some other thing with which the former has been taken for comparison. Pariṇāma is twofold on the basis of appositional and non-appositional character.

eg 1. prasannena dṛgabjena vīkṣyate madirekṣaṇā. प्रसन्नेन दृगब्जेन वीक्ष्यते मदिरेक्षणा । Through the calm and quite lotus-eyes Is noticed the girl of amorous looks. 2. apāre saṃsāre viṣama-viṣayāraṇya-saraṇau mama bhrāmaṃ bhrāmaṃ vigalita-virāmaṃ jaḍamateḥ, pariśrāntasyāyaṃ taraṇi-tanayā-tīra-nilayaḥ samantāt santāpaṃ harir-nava-tamālas tirayatu. अपारे संसारे विषम-विषयारण्यसरणौ मम भ्रामं भ्रामं विगलितविरामं जडमतेः । परिश्रान्तस्यायं तरणि-तनया-तीर-निलयः समन्तात् सन्तापं हरिर्नवतमालस्तिरयतु ॥ In this boundless world with tracts through vicious earthly enjoyment Where I myself, the stupid one, tired, roamed about persistent. Sheltered on the bank of Kālindī, as if, a tamāla tree May God Hari <flag>alround</flag> from sufferings make me entirely free.

In both the examples, the non-referent has assumed the qualities of the referent. The object of comparison has been superimposed on the object of discussion and such commutation happenes through the exchange of one's qualities to other.

Definitions

आरोप्यमाणस्य प्रकृतोपयोगित्वे परिणामः । अ. स. १७ परिणामोऽनयोर्यस्मिन्नभेदः पर्यवस्यति । च. ५.२२ तं परिणामं द्विविधं कथयन्त्यारोप्यमाणरूपतया । परिणमति यत्र विषयः प्रस्तुतकार्योपयोगाय ॥ ए. ८१७ आरोप्यमाणमारोपविषयात्मतया स्थितम् । प्रकृतस्योपयोगित्वात् परिणाम उदाहृतः । प. य ३७७ विषयात्मतयारोप्ये प्रकृतार्थोपयोगिनि । परिणामो भवेत् ॥ सा. १० आरोप्यमाणस्य प्रकृतोपयोगित्वे परिणामः । चि. परिणामः कियार्थश्चेद् विषयी विषयात्मना । कु. ६.२१ विषयी यत्र विषयात्मतयैव प्रकृते प्रकृतोपयोगी न स्वातन्त्र्येण स परिणामः । र. २

<headword>परिसंख्या</headword>

परिसंख्या Parisaṃkhyā : Exclusive Specification:

The word parisaṃkhyā (pari saṃ √khyā a<ach ā <tap) literally means enumeration, totality, exclusion, limitation etc. Here the prefix pari denotes exclusion, and saṃkhyā means enumeration or limitation. In the science of rhetoric, Parisaṃkhyā is a figure where, with or without query, something is positively asserted for the denial, expressed or implied, of something similar to it.

In Mimāṃsā philosophy and Dharmaśāstras, parīsaṃkhyā is a technical term. Three terms are closely related there. These are vidhi, niyama and parisaṃkhyā. Vidhi gives pure injunction about something, which is not known from any other source; niyama is a rule or precept that specifies something which would be optional in case any specific rule is absent; parisaṃkhyā is restriction to one out of many expressly mentioned. In Mīmāṃsā, parisaṃkhyā denotes specific exclusion or limitation to that which is enumerated or expressly mentioned, so that everything else is excluded. So it is ultimately opposed to vidhi that sets some injunction or rule for the first time, and also to niyama that gives restriction to the choice for an alternative.

In the figure Parisaṃkhyā, special mention of the thing asserted at the exclusion of such similar things may or may not be preceded by a question, and the thing or things to be excluded may be explicitly stated or implied. Parisaṃkhyā as a figure gives special charm to the diction. In Sanskrit poetry, this figure has created special type of muktaka verses composed in the stylistic pattern of question and answer.

eg 1. bhaktir bhave na vibhave vyasanaṃ śāstre na yuvati-kāmāstre. cintā yaśasi na vapuṣi prāyaḥ paridṛśyate mahatām. भक्तिर्भवे न विभवे व्यसनं शास्त्रे न युवतिकामास्त्रे । चिन्ता यशसि न वपुषि प्रायः परिदृश्यते महताम् ॥ Adherence to God Almighty, Not to wealth and prosperity; Addiction to scriptures, Not to feminine raptures; Fancy to fame, not to mortal frame This is found almost always with the noble ones.

2. kimārādhyaṃ sadā puṇyaṃ kaśca sevyo sadāgamaḥ, ko dhyeyo bhagavān viṣṇuḥ kiṃ kāmyaṃ paramaṃ padam. किमाराध्यं सदा पुण्यं कश्च सेव्यो सदागमः । को ध्येयो भगवान् विष्णुः किं काम्यं परमं पदम् ॥ What deserves to be honoured always ? Virtue. Which deserves to be followed always? Scriptures. Who deserves to be meditated upon ? Lord Viṣṇu. What is to be desired most ? The sublime goal.

Definitions

पृष्टमपृष्टं वा सद्गुणादि यत्कथ्यते क्वचित्तुल्यम् । अन्यत्र तु तदभावः प्रतीयते सेति परिसंख्या ॥ रु. का. ७.७६ किंचित्पृष्टमपृष्टं वा कथितं यत् प्रकल्पते । तादृगन्यव्यपोहाय परिसंख्या तु सा स्मृता ॥ का. प्र. १०.१८५ एकस्यानेकप्राप्तावेकत्र नियमनं परिसंख्या । अ. स. ६३ यत्र साधारणं किञ्चदेकत्र प्रतिपद्यते । अन्यत्र तन्निवृत्त्यै सा परिसंख्योच्यते ॥ वा. ४.१४२ पृष्टेऽपृष्टे वा अन्यापोहपरोक्तिः परिसंख्या । हे. का. २६ एकस्यानेकत्र प्राप्तावेकत्र यो भवेन्नियमः । ख्याता सा परिसंख्या संख्यावद्भिश्चतुर्भेदाः ॥ ए. ८.५३ एकस्य वस्तुनः प्राप्तावनेकत्रैकदा यदि । एकत्र नियमः सा हि परिसंख्या निगद्यते । प्र. य. ४५३ प्रश्नादप्रश्नतो वापि कथिताद्वस्तुनो भवेत् । तादृगन्यव्यापोहश्चेच्छाब्द आर्थोऽथवा तदा ॥ परिसंख्या । सा. १०।८१ पृष्टमपृष्टं वा यदन्यव्यवच्छैदपरतयोच्यते सा परिसंख्या ॥ वा. ३ परिसंख्या निषिध्यैकमेकस्मिन्वस्तुयन्त्रणम् । कु. ५३.११३ प्रश्नपूर्वकमाख्यानं तत्सामान्यव्यपोहनम् । तस्य तस्यापि च ज्ञेये व्यङ्गत्वे स्यादथापरम् । अप्रश्नपूर्वकं वाच्यं परिसंख्या चतुर्विधा ॥ अ. कौ. ८.२६३ सामान्यतः प्राप्तस्यार्थस्य कस्माच्चिद्विशेषाद् व्यावृत्तिः         परिसंख्या । र. २

<headword>पिहित</headword>

पिहितम् Pihitam : Eclipse :

The word pihita (api dhā kta=apihita > pihita) means enclosed, enveloped, eclipsed overshadowed, overcast etc. The figure Pihita occurs in two ways: (i) it consists in insinuation to somebody by the fact that the speaker knows his secrets or (ii) when there are two objects contained in one container and one of them is totally eclipsed or overshadowed by the other.

Mammaţa includes it in Sūkṣma

Definitions

यत्रातिबलतया गुणः समानाधिकरणमसमानम् । अर्थान्तरं विदध्यादाविर्भूतमपि तत् पिहितम् ॥ रु. का. ६.५० पिहितं परवृत्तान्तज्ञातुरन्यस्य चेष्टितम् । च. ५.१०४ एकत्राधारे यत्राधेयद्वयस्यैकेनैकं विधीयते तत् पिहितम् । वा. का.

<headword>पुनरुक्तवदाभासः</headword>

पुनरुक्तवदाभासः Punaruktavadābhāsaḥ : Apparent Tautology :

It is punar again, repeated, ukta word or expression, vat like, similar, ābhāsa appearance. Therefore, punaruktavadābhāsa literally means appearance of apparent tautology. If there is repetition of apparently synonymous words which give actually different meanings to the present context, the figure of speech is called Punaruktavadābhāsa. Here the impression of tautology is removed as soon as the contextual meaning is understood. Though related to both word and meaning yet due to the impression of apparent tautology this alaṃkāra has been included in the group of figures of sound by older rhetoricians.

eg 1. jiṣṇur indraḥ kṣitibhujāṃ śrīpatiḥ puruṣottamaḥ, bhāsvān sūrya-sphūrattejāḥ kākatīndro virājate. जिष्णुरिन्द्रः क्षितिभुजां श्रीपतिः पुरुषोत्तमः । भास्वान् सूर्यस्फूरत्तेजाः काकतीन्द्रो विराजते ॥ Of all mortal kings he is Indra, the invincible Almighty, The supreme Lord, lord of Śri (wealth and beauty), The shining one, resplendent in brilliance -The king of kākati dynasty shines

Here six adjectives in three pairs apparently appear as synonymous, but practically each word gives different meaning with reference to the context.

<headword>पूर्व</headword>

पूर्वम् Pūrvam : Antecedent :

It is otherwise called Pūrvarūpa. The word pūrva literally means prior, anterior, previous, antecedent, rūpa is form, quality or attribute. As a figure of speech Pūrva signifies some special reference about an object or person assuming its previous state or his former qualities respectively even in the face of its contrary. It is an uncommon figure and recognised by a few rhetoricians, while others include it in Samādhi or Atiśaya. According to Rudraṭa, Pūrva is based either on similitude or on hyperbolic statement.

eg 1. hara-kaṇṭhāṃśulipto'pi śeṣas tvayaśasā sitaḥ हरकण्ठांशुलिप्तोपि शेषस्त्वयशसा सितः । Even if by the lustre of Śiva's neck Śeṣa has got a colour-blend Still through such dishonour he has whitened. 2. janma sulabham abhilaṣitam ādau dandahyate mano yūnām. guru-nivāra-prasaraḥ paścāt madanānalo jvalati. जन्मसुलभमभिलषितमादौ दन्दह्यते मनो यूनाम् । गुरुनिवारप्रसरः पश्चात् मदनानलो ज्वलति ॥ At first the passionate desire agreeable and natural Burns the minds of young men, Then the fire of love, strong and uncontrollable Flames in them again.

Definitions

यत्रैकविधावर्थौ जायेते यौ तयोरपूर्वस्य । अभिधानं प्राग्भवतः सतोऽभिधीयते तत् पूर्वम् । यत्रातिप्रबलतया विवक्ष्यते पूर्वमेव अन्यस्य । प्रादुर्भावः पश्चाज्जनकस्य तु तद्भवेत् पूर्वम् ॥ रु. का. ८.६७ ६.३ अर्वाचीनार्थस्य पृथगभिधानं पूर्वम् । का. प्र

<headword>प्रतिवस्तूपमा</headword>

प्रतिवस्तूपमा Prativastūpamā : Typical Comparison :

It is prati each, vastu statement or expression and upamā simile or comparison. Rhetorically Prativastūpamā denotes resemblance of ideas implied in two separate sentences by the same common attribute expressed differently.

It is one of the popular and well-known figures or tropes. Like Tulyayogitā (Equal Matching) and Dīpaka (Illuminator) Prativastūpama is also based on similitude which is always implied. The common attribute between the two is found to exist in three different ways: (i) it exists in the same manner as in the contextual so in the non-contextual, (ii) it exists as type-and-proto-type (ie vastu prativastubhāva), (iii) it exists in the relation of original-and-reflection (ie bimba-pratibimba-bhāva).

Here the relation between the upameya and the upamāna is based on different attributes, but in spite of that there is some sort of similitude between the two. In the last two varieties, the common attribute is separately indicated. Prativastūpama is based on the second variety ie through the relation of vastu-prativastu (ie type-and-prototype).

Ordinarily we find here some proposition is established first and then another similar proposition is given for its support. Here the contextual and the non-contextual are given in two separate sentences and at least one common aspect of similitude between them is separately indicated, but their mutual relation of similitude is always suggested and never directly stated.

eg 1. dhanyāsi vaidarbhi guṇair udārair yayā samākṛṣyata naiṣadhoʼpi, itaḥ stutiḥ kā khalu candrikāyā yad abdhim apyuttaralīkaroti. धन्यासि वैदर्भि गुणैरुदारैर् / यया समाकृष्यत नैषधोऽपि । इतः स्तुतिः का खलु चन्द्रिकाया / यदब्धिमप्युत्तरलीकरोति ॥ O Vaidarbhi! by virtues noble blessed thou art, By which even the king Naiṣadhya you attract; Hence what praise does the moon deserve -Even the sea to overflow that does serve.

Here the poet describes how Damayanti, the princess of Vidarbha country, attracts Nala, the renowned king, by her noble qualities. This statement has been implicitly compared to the act of overflowing of the sea by the attraction of the moonbeams. Here similitude between the two is implied through the use of two separate verbs (ie samākṛṣyata and uttaralī-karoti)

Definitions

वस्तु किंचिदुपन्यस्य न्यसनात्तत्सधर्मणः । साम्यप्रतीतिरस्तीति प्रतिवस्तूपमा यथा ॥ का. २.४६ समानवस्तुन्यासेन प्रतिवस्तूपमोच्यते । यथेवानभिधानेऽपि गुणसाम्यप्रतीतिः ॥ भा. का. २.३४ उपमानसन्निधाने च साम्यवाच्युच्यते । बुधैर्यत्रोपमेयस्य च कविभिः सा प्रतिवस्तूपमा गदिता । अ. सं. १ । २२ उपमेयोक्तौ समानवस्तुन्यासः प्रतिवस्तु । का. सू. २.३.२ प्रतिवस्तूपमा सा । सामान्यस्य द्विरेकस्य यत्र वाक्यद्वये स्थितिः ॥ का. प्र. १०.१५४ वाक्यार्थगतत्वेन सामान्यस्य वाक्यद्वये पृथंनिर्देशे प्रतिवस्तूपमा ।अ. स. अनुपात्ताविवादीनां वस्तुना प्रतिवस्तुना । यत्र प्रतीयते साम्यं प्रतिवस्तूपमा तु सा ॥ वा. ४.७१ वाक्ययोरर्थसामान्ये प्रतिवस्तूपमा मता । च. ५.५३ वाक्यार्थगतत्वेन स्यात् सामान्यं पृथग् विनिर्दिष्टम् । यस्यां द्वेधा तज्ज्ञैः सा प्रतिवस्तूपमा समाम्नाता ॥ ए. ८.१७ यत्र सामान्यनिर्देशः पृथग् वाक्यद्वये यदि । गम्यौपम्याश्रिता सा स्याद् प्रतिवस्तूपमा मता ॥ प्र. य. ८.१७८ प्रतिवस्तूपमा सा स्याद् वाक्ययोर्गम्यसाम्ययोः । एकोऽपि धर्मः सामान्यो यत्र निर्दिश्यते पृथक् ॥ सा. १०.४६ वाक्ययोरेकसामान्ये प्रतिवस्तूपमा मता । कु. ५१ सादृश्यपर्यवसिते यस्मिन् वाक्यद्वये धर्मः । एकोऽपि द्विरुपात्तस्तां प्रतिवस्तूपमामाहुः ॥ अ. कौ. ३० वस्तुप्रतिवस्तुभावापन्नसाधारणधर्मक वाक्यार्थयोरार्थमौपम्यं प्रतिवस्तूपमा । र. २ प्रतिवस्तूपमा तदा । सामान्यस्य स्थितिर्वाक्य उपमानोपमेययोः । अ-कौ. ८.२६२

<headword>प्रतीप</headword>

प्रतीपम् Pratīpam : Reversed Simile :

prati ap a <ac = pratīpa literally means contrary, unfavourable, adverse, opposite, reverse, inverted, out of order, backward, retrogade. As a figure of speech Pratīpa occurs when the standard order of comparison is reversed or inverted (ie the upamāna or the standard of comparison turns itself to be the upameya or the object of comparison). Therefore, the usual form of poetic similitude is given in the reverse or uncommon way or more clearly the upamāna is compared with the upameya, for example the beautiful face is not compared with the moon, but the moon is compared with the beautiful face. Such reversal of the popular way of comparison becomes rhetorically justified on the point that the poet wants to give prominence to the object of discussion in a novel way.

Another variety of Pratīpa is based on the logic of kaimutikanyāya ie what is the use of accepting any standard object for comparison for a beautiful or famous object, or more clearly, the upamāna (ie the standard of comparison) is condemned as superfluous or useless before the object which is brought into comparison as the standard ideal of quality for similitude.

Pratīpa is different from Vyatireka (Contrast) though in both of them the upameya is highlighted by its superiority from the upamāna. Difference between the two lies in the fact that Pratīpa is based on similitude while Vyatireka on contrast. According to Daṇḍin, the present figure is simply a variety of Upamā, termed as Viparyāsa upamā (ie Simile constructed in reverse order). eg 1. tava mukhena kṛśodari candra upamīyate janena. तव मुखेन कृशोदरि चन्द्र उपमीयते जनेन । To thy face, O beauty of slender waist By the people a comparison with the moon is set. 2. dṛṣṭaṃ ced vadanaṃ tasyāḥ kiṃ padmena kimindunā. दृष्टं चेद् वदनं तस्याः किं पद्मेन किमिन्दुना । If her lovely face is seen What's the use of the lotus or the moon?.

In the first statement, the common procedure of similitude between the face and the moon has been put in a reverse way.

In the second statement, the lotus or the moon has been declared unfit or totally superfluous before the beautiful face which is the topic of discussion (ie technically the upameya). In other words, it is suggested that there is no use of accepting any standard ideal of comparison to exhibit the beauty of the face through common similitude.

Definitions

यत्रानुकम्प्यते सममुपमाने निन्द्यते वापि । उपमेयमतिस्तोतुं दुरवस्थमिति प्रतीपं स्यात् ॥ रु. का. ८.७६ आक्षेप उपमानस्य प्रतीपमुपमेयता । तस्यैव यदि वा कल्प्या तिरस्कारनिबन्धनम् । का. प्र. १०.२०१ उपमानस्याक्षेप उपमेयताकल्पनं वा प्रतीपम् । अ. स. १० प्रतीपमुपमानस्य हीनत्वमुपमेयतः। च. ५.६६ उपमानस्याक्षेपः स्यादुपमेयत्वकल्पनं यद्वा । यत्र प्रतीपमेतद् विबुधैरभिधीयते द्विविधम् ॥ प्र. ८.६२ आक्षेप उपमानस्य कैमर्थक्येन कथ्यते । यद्वोपमेयभावः स्यात् तत्प्रतीपमुदाहृतम् ॥ प्र. य. ८.२१४ प्रसिद्धस्योपमानस्योपमेयत्वप्रकल्पनम् । निष्फलत्वाभिधानं वा प्रतीपमिति कथ्यते ॥ उक्त्वा चात्यन्तानुत्कर्षमत्युत्कृष्टस्य वस्तुनः । कल्पितेऽप्युपमानत्वे प्रतीपं केचिदूचिरे ॥ सा. १०.८८ प्रतीपमुपमानस्योपमेयत्वप्रकल्पनम् । अन्योपमेयलाभेन वर्ण्यस्यानादरश्च तत् । वर्ण्योपमेयलाभेन तथान्यस्यप्यनादरः । वर्ण्यनान्यस्योपमाया अनिष्पत्तिवचश्च तत् । प्रतीपमुपमानस्य कैमर्थ्यमपि मन्यते । कु. ११२-११६ उपमानानर्थक्यं प्रतीपमस्योपमेयत्वम् अ. क. ६०

प्रसिद्धौपम्यवैपरीत्येन-वर्ण्यमानमौपम्यमेकं प्रतीपम् । उपमानोपमेययोरन्यतरस्य किञ्चिद्गुणप्रयुक्तमद्वितीयतयोत्कर्षं प्रतिहर्तुं द्वितीयं, प्रदर्शनेनोल्लास्यमानं सादृश्यमपरम् । उपमानस्य कैमर्थ्यं चतुर्थम् । सादृश्यविघटनं पञ्चमम् । र. २

प्रतीपमुपमानस्य धिक्कृत्यै चोपमेयता । अल-कौ. ८.३१०

<headword>प्रहर्षण</headword>

प्रहर्षणम् Praharṣaṇam : The Exalted :

pra √hṛṣ (to be delighted, rejoiced, glad) ana <anat Praharṣaṇa is a figure where some kind of attainment of good and desired result is artistically represented. Such result should be direct and occur in three ways: (i) to attain it all on a sudden, (ii) to attain more than what is desired, (iii) to attain by sincere effort.

eg 1. tiraskṛto roṣavaśāta pariṣvajan priyo mṛgākṣyā śayitaḥ parāṅmukhaḥ. kiṃ mūrcchitoʼsāviti kāndīśīkayā kayācit ācumbya cirāya saṣvaje. तिरस्कृतो रोषवशात परिष्वजन् प्रियो मृगाक्ष्या शयितः पराङ्मुखः । किं मूर्च्छितोऽसाविति कान्दिशीकया कयाचिदाचुम्ब्य चिराय सष्वजे ॥ The lover though rebuked embraced her in anger And lay there turning his face opposite to her. 'Has he fainted!' thus thought the doe-eyed woman And kissed and hugged him again and again.

The verse states how the lover attained all on a sudden the most agreeable and desired result through the acts of kissing and embrace from his aggrieved mistress.

Definitions

वाञ्छितादधिकप्राप्तिरयत्ने प्रहर्षणम् । च. ५.४५ उत्कण्ठितार्थसंसिद्धिर्विना यत्नं प्रहर्षणम् । वाञ्छितादधिकार्थस्य संसिद्धिश्च प्रहर्षणम् । यत्नादुपायसिद्ध्यर्थात् साक्षाल्लाभः फलस्य च । कु. १२६ - १३१ साक्षात्तदुद्देश्ययत्नमन्तरेणाप्यभीष्टार्थलाभः प्रहर्षणम् । र. २

<headword>प्रहेलिका</headword>

प्रहेलिका Prahelikā : Riddle :

The word prahelikā (pra √hel aka ā) means a riddle (roedeles roedan to read) in the form of an enigma, a conundrum, a puzzling question, or an obscure description of something. Riddles are more or less very popular literary forms in all ages. In folk literature as well as in oral tradition, numerous forms of riddles are found to be very common. The scope of riddle ranges from common topics to various forms of literary style and expression. We find riddles in Vedic and Upanisadic hymns in the form of charms, spells and incantations as well as in classical and folk poetry.

As a figure of speech Prahelikā is first defined in the Agnipurāṇa and afterwards accepted by Bhoja, Viśvanātha, Kṣemendra and others. According to the Agnipurāṇa, Prahelika is an enigma with double meaning concealed therein. Bhoja calls it a kind of unanswered question. But others say that the answer may also be found inside the question through the riddle. But the scope of prahelikā is very wide and there are various forms of expression.

Two main varieties are: (i) śābdī (based on particular word / words) and (ii) ārthī (based on the complete meaning of the sentence). Daṇḍin has enumerated sixteen varieties and Bhoja has included some other new varieties with them. Some of these are as follows: (i) cyutākṣara (syllable / syllables dropped), (ii) dattākṣara (syllable / syllables to be added) (iii) cyuta-dattākṣara (a mixture of the two mentioned above) (iv) artha-prahelikā (a riddle in the whole sentence).

But Visvanātha refuses to accept it as a figure and declares that a riddle or puzzle has no poetic beauty of its own since it is simply a twisting of words or puzzling a sense. His opinion is not acceptable to all because there are so many thought-provoking and artistic riddles which are attractive to all classes of intelligent readers.

eg 1. yasyāmataṃ tasya mataṃ mataṃ yasya na veda saḥ. यस्यामतं तस्य मतं मतं यस्य न वेद सः । He, who knows Him not, really knows Him He, who knows, knows Him not.

2.kūjanti kokilāḥ sāle yauvane phullam ambujam. kiṃ karotu kuraṃgākṣī vadanena nipīḍitā. कूजन्ति कोकिलाः साले यौवने फुल्लमम्बुजम् । किं करोतु कुरंगाक्षी वदनेन निपीडिता ॥ Cuckoos are cooing amid mango trees, In woodland ponds lotuses blooming, Tormented by Cupid as she is What should the fawn-eyed lady be doing!

The first example is a hymn from the Upanisad in the form of aphorism stating the true nature of God-realistion in the state of which a man cannot differentiate him from God. Such divine realisation is altogether different from all other feelings. Therefore it has been expressed through a contradictory statement in the form of a riddle or enigma.

The second example is a riddle with syllables to be dropped or changed or added. Here sāle is intended as rasāle (r being added) yauvane is intended as vane (yau being dropped) and vadanena is intended as madanena (va being changed as ma)

Definitions

द्वयोरप्यर्थयोर्गुह्यमानशब्दा प्रहेलिका। अ. ३४३.२८ प्रहेलिका सकृत्प्रश्नः । स. २.१४६ ;

<headword>प्रश्नोत्तर</headword>

प्रश्नोत्तरः Praśnottaraḥ : Hypophora :

It is termed praśna-uttara (question-and-answer)--√pracch (to ask) na <naṃ, ut √tṛ a <ap. The figure Praśnottara denotes asking questions and answering them. It is otherwise known as Uttara (Rhetorical Answer) or Chitrottara (Refined Answer). It represents some poetically refined or artistic statement set in the form of question-andanswer. Such a device of literary expression is found to be very common and popular in language. The form of putting question and supplying the answer may be either simple or abstruse. If the figure is simply Uttara, then in such case, either some question may be presumed from the answer or the vice versa. It is also called Praśna (Erotesis or Interrogation) and in that case, the question is put in such a form that the answer comes out itself from the question.

Bhoja remarks that Prasnottara is a kind of cultural entertainment in the council of the elite. He gives sixfold varieties of this figure: (i) bahiḥ-praśna (question simply stated), (ii)antaḥ-praśna(question abstrusely stated), (iii)bahirantaḥ-praśna (an amalgum of the previous two forms), (iv) jāti-praśna (question in natural order), (v) pṛṣṭa praśna (question seeking answer), (vi) uttara-prasna (question with Answer). Vidyādhara says that the present figure may be included in vākovākya as defined by some rhetoricians.

It is needless to say that Praśnottara is different from Hetu (Poetic Causation), Anumana (Poetic Inference) or Kāvyalinga (Corroboration) because the answer to the question is either stated or implied here by the poet directly or indirectly and not inferred in any way. Here the question may be one or more than one with the corresponding answer or answers. It should be remembered that such question and answer must be poetically refined and artistically attractive.

eg 1. kaṃ saṃjaghāna Kṛṣṇa? कं संजघान कृष्णः ? Whom did Kṛṣṇa slay? Kṛṣṇa slew Kaṃsa. kā śītala-vāhinī gangā ? का शीतलवाहिनी गंगा ? Where does the Ganga flow quietly? Quiet flows the Ganga in the land of Kāsi ke dāra-poṣaṇe ratāḥ ? के दारपोषणे रताः ? Who are actively engaged in maintaining their families? Those who are engaged in cultivation (maintain their families). kaṃ balavantaṃ na bādhate śītam ? कं बलवन्तं न बाधते शीतम् ? Whom the mighty one winter cannot torment ? Winter cannot torment one who has a blanket.

2. koʼyaṃ dvāri ? hariḥ, prayāhyupavanaṃ, śākhāmṛgeṇātra kim ? kṛṣṇoʼhaṃ dayite, bibhemi sutarāṃ kṛṣṇaḥ kathaṃ vānaraḥ, mugdheʼhaṃ madhusūdano, vraja latāṃ tāmeva puṣpāsavām itthaṃ nirvacanīkṛto dayitayā hrīṇo hariḥ pātu vaḥ. कोऽयं द्वारि ? हरिः । प्रयाह्युपवनं, शाखामृगेणात्र किम् ? कृष्णोऽहं दयिते । बिभेमि सुतरां कृष्णः कथं वानरः । मुग्धेऽहं मधुसूदनो । व्रज लतां तामेव पुष्पासवाम् इत्थं निर्वचनीकृतो दयितया ह्रीणो हरिः पातु वः ॥ Who is in the gate? It's me Hari. (If so) go to the garden, what's the need of a monkey here ? It's me Kṛṣṇa, my love. That's why I get frightened. How is it? -- a monkey and that too black! My darling, it's me, Madhusūdana. (If so), go to the creeper fully blossomed Thus put to shame and made responseless by the beloved May Hari protect you all.

This verse is written in the form of a dialogue with question and answer between Rādhā and Kṛṣṇa. It is also a fine example of pun on the words indicated below : (a) hariḥ : means (i) Lord Kṛṣṇa, lover of the cowherd maidens and (ii) a monkey, (b) Kṛṣṇa : (i) an epithet of Hariḥ and (ii) black in complexion, (c) madhusūdana : (i) an epithet of Kṛṣṇa who slew the demon Madhu and (ii) a bee that collects honey from flowers.

Definitions

यस्तु पर्यनुयोगस्य निर्भेदः क्रियते पदैः । विदग्घगोष्ठ्यां वाक्यैर्वा तं हि प्रश्नोत्तरं विदुः ॥ स. २.१४२ प्रश्ने यत्रोत्तरं व्यक्तं गूढं वाप्यथवोभयम् । प्रश्नोत्तरम् । वा. ४.१४४ यत्र प्रश्नपुरःसरमुभयोर्मिथः समुल्लसति । प्रश्नोत्तरिकासंज्ञं तमलंकारं विदुर्बुधाः । ए.६८

<headword>प्रौढोक्ति</headword>

प्रौढोक्तिः Prauḍhoktiḥ : Quality Statement :

prauḍha means matured, dignified, qualified, ukti is expression, statement etc. Rhetorically it is Prauḍhokti where some object basically incapable of producing some kind of speciality is conceived as producing such speciality. But Jagannātha's conception of this figure is slightly different. His idea of Prauḍhokti is as follows:

In order to signify some sort of excellence in an object a statement about its association with another object having the same kind of excellence is made in such a statement which is figuratively known as Prauḍhokti.

It is recognised by Jayadeva, Appayya, Jagannātha and a few others. kalindajā-tīra-ruhā: śyāmalā: saraladrumāḥ कलिन्दजा-तीररुहाः श्यामलाः सरलद्रुमाः । The trees growing on the bank of the Kālindī river Are green and straight for ever.

Definitions

प्रौढोक्तिस्तदशक्तस्य तच्छक्तत्वावकल्पनम् । च. ५.४५ प्रौढोत्किरुत्कर्षहेतौ तद्धेतुत्वप्रकल्पनम् । कु. ६३.१२५ कस्मिंश्चिदर्थे किञ्चिद्धर्मकृतातिशयप्रतिपिपादयिषया प्रसिद्धतद्धर्मवता संसर्गस्योद्भावनं प्रौढोक्तिः । र. २

<headword>भणिति</headword>

भणितिः Bhanitiḥ: Artful diction :

The word bhaṇiti (√bhaṇ to speak ti <ktin) literally means speech, expression, statement, saying etc. As a figure of speech Bhaṇiti consists of a special mode of expression. It is only Bhoja who has recognised some uncommon figures and Bhaṇiti is one of them. It is to be noted here that Kuntaka has used the term bhaṇiti in a very wide sense along with vakrokti which is defined as vaidagdhya-bhangibhaṇiti ie stylistic mode of expression. According to him, all varieties of figures of speech, rīti or mārga (literary style or technique) and dhvani (suggestion) are but different forms of vakrokti. Here Bhaṇiti, according to Bhoja, implies beauty of expression, but its scope has been restricted to an ordinary figure only.

eg 1. ābharaṇasyābharaṇaṃ prasādhanavidheḥ prasādhana-viśeṣaḥ upamānasyāpi sakhe pratyupamānaṃ vapus tasyāḥ. आभरणस्याभरणं प्रसाधनविधेः प्रसाधनविशेषः । उपमानस्यापि सखे प्रत्युपमानं वपुस्तस्याः ॥ O friend, she has a charming figure-The decoration of all decor, An extra-ordinary fashion of all fashions The finest standard of all comparisons. 2. praṇamatyunnati-hetor jīvita-hetor vimuñcati prāṇān duḥkhīyati sukha-hetoḥ ko mūḍhaḥ sevakādanyaḥ. प्रणमत्युन्नतिहेतोर् जीवितहेतोर् विमुञ्चति प्राणान् । दुःखीयति सुखहेतोः को मूढः सेवकादन्यः ॥ In order to get a lift he himself bends down, For a good living he risks the life of his own, For the sake of pleasure he suffers pain. Who can be such a fool except the serving man?

In the first example, the beautiful feminine figure has been very artistically represented without giving the details of its charming features, but simply stating its exquisite and incomparable charm in a special mode of poetic diction.

In the second verse, the wretched and pathetic condition of the life of a servant has been highlighted through contradictions of his personal feelings and attitudes.

<headword>भाविक</headword>

भाविकम् Bhāvikam : Vision :

The word bhāvika literally means natural, real, innate or inherent. This figure is otherwise called Bhāva which signifies the intention or feeling of the poet. Bhāva is also synonymous to bhāvanā meaning deep thinking with total absorption. In rhetoric, Bhāvika is a figure of speech where some person or thing relating to the past or future is represented so strikingly in the present context that the same appears, as it were, real. Viśvanātha explains that in such figurative representation, the poet reconstructs such a charming and wonderful thing or character so vividly or minutely that the reader's imaginative faculty conceives it, as if, real before his mind's eye.

It is very important to note that Daṇḍin, Bhāmaha and Bhaṭṭi acknowledge bhāvika as prabandha-guṇa (ie literary quality that pervades the entire composition and not merely a single word, phrase or a sentence. It is for this reason that they do not cite any example of this figure. In this context, bhāvika may also seem strikingly identical with prasāda guṇa which, according to rhetoricians, is perspicuity or lucidity of expression.

Bhāvika is different from Bhrāntimān, Atiśayokti and Pratīyamāna-utprekṣā. Bhrāntimān (Illusion) creates some types of fanciful error or illusion by which one thing is mistakenly recognised as another due to close similarity between the two, but Bhāvika arouses no such false analogy regarding any past or future event or character. In Atiśayokti (Hyperbole), one thing is completely enveloped by another which is totally identical with it. One variety of Utprekṣā implies a suggested sense in addition to the primary one, but Bhāvika does not suggest any special implication. The figure Kāvyalinga (Poetical Cause) may seem somehow identical with Bhāvika, but the difference between the two lies in the fact that the conception of causal relation is absent in Bhāvika and moreover it creates an atmosphere of pseudo-reality which is in no way concerned with Kāvyalinga.

Viśvanātha raised another point by arguing that the present figure is different from what is known as adbhutarasa or the poetic sentiment called wonder. In his opinion, the past or the future appearing as real must be strikingly attractive to the reader and therefore, Bhāvika may be confused with wonder. But he asserts that the scope of this figure is limited in comparison to that of guṇa or adbhuta rasa. Bhāmaha remarks that Bhāvika may appear to be identical with Svabhāvokti which gives minute description of the nature of things. But these two are quite different. According to Mammaṭa Bhāvika is to be included in Sūkṣma.

eg 1. ahaṃ vilokayeʼdyāpi yudhyanteʼtra surāsurāḥ. अहं विलोकयेऽद्यापि युध्यन्तेऽत्र सुरासुराः । I behold gods and demons here Fighting even today in war.

2. āsīd añjanam atreti paśyāmi tava locane. bhāvi-bhūṣaṇa-sambhārāṃ sākṣāt-kurve tavākṛtim. आसीदञ्जनमत्रेति पश्यामि तव लोचने । भाविभूषणसम्भारां साक्षात्कुर्वे तवाकृतिम् ॥ I behold (even today) those eyes of thine, Which bear collyrium marks therein. I perceive thy handsome figure With ornaments to be worn in future. In the first example, the speaker appears so much absorbed in the past that he witnesses the fight between gods and demons even to day, which actually happened long long ago.

In the second statement, the lover reminisces the bygone days of his sweet experience in company with his beloved lady. Even today he can see those beautiful eyes of his sweet heart, which were very attractive with collyrium paint. He also enjoys unending pleasure while looking at her beautiful figure and also fancifully finds out the ornaments which would decorate her body in future.

Definitions

भाविकं तमिति प्राहुः प्रबन्धविषयं गुणम् । परस्परोपकारित्वं सर्वेषां वस्तुपर्वणाम् । विशेषणानां व्यर्थानामक्रिया स्थानवर्णना ॥ व्यक्तिरुक्तिक्रमबलाद् गम्भीरस्यापि वस्तुनः । भावायत्तमिदं सर्वमिति तद् भाविकं विदुः ॥ का. २.३६३-६५ भाविकत्वमिति प्राहुः प्रबन्धविषयं गुणम् । प्रत्यक्षा इव दृश्यन्ते यत्रार्था भूतभाविनः ॥ भा. का. ३.५३ प्रत्यक्षा इव यत्रार्था दृश्यन्ते भूतभाविनः । अत्यद्भुताः स्यात्तद्वाचामनाकुल्येन भाविकम् ॥ अ. सं. ६.६ स्वाभिप्रायस्य कथनं यदि वाप्यन्यभावना। अन्यापदेशो वा यस्तु त्रिविधं भाविकं विदुः ॥ स. ४.८६ स्वाभिप्रायकथनमन्यापदेशोऽन्यभावना च भाविकम् । श्रृ. १० अद्भुतस्य पदार्थस्य भूतस्याथ भविष्यतः । यत् प्रत्यक्षायमाणत्वं तद्भाविकमुदाहृतम् ॥ सा. १०.३३ प्रत्यक्षा इव यद्भावाः क्रियन्ते भूतभाविनः । तद्भाविकम् । का. प्र. १०।१७३ अतीतानागतयोः प्रत्यक्षायमाणत्वं भाविकम् । अ. स. ८० भाविकं भूतभाव्यर्थसाक्षाद्दर्शनवर्णनम् । देशात्मविप्रकृष्टस्य दर्शनं भाविकच्छविः । च. ५.१०८, १०६ भूतस्य भाविनो वा प्रत्यक्षायमाणतार्थस्य । विलसति सुतरामेतन्निगद्यते भाविकं कविभिः। ए. ८.७३ अतीतानागते यत्र प्रत्यक्षे इव लक्षिते । अतद्भुतार्थकथनाद्भाविकं तदुदाहृतम् ॥ प्र. य. ४.६० भाविकं भूतभाव्यर्थसाक्षात्कारस्य वर्णनम् । कु. १४.१६१ स्वाभिप्रायस्य कथनं यदि वाप्यन्यभावना । अतीतानागतानां साक्षात्त्वमिव भाविकम् । अ. कौ. ८.२८१ भाविकमध्यक्षं स्यात्सध्वंसप्रागभावानाम् । अ-कौ. ४३

<headword>भ्रान्तिमान्</headword>

भ्रान्तिमान् Bhrāntimān : Poetic Illusion :

√bhram ti<ktin (bhrānti) mān <matup literally means erroneous, false, erring, mistaking etc. The figure is also called Bhrānti. Here one thing is mistakenly apprehended as other due to close resemblance between the two, suggested by poetic imagery. It is a kind of illusion created by poetic image in which there is recognition of a different but similar thing instead of the real one bearing close resemblance to the unreal. The term Bhrānti is preferable to Bhrāntimān, but reputed rhetors like Mammaṭa, Viśvanātha, Jagannātha and others called it Bhrāntimān.

In epistemology, bhrama or bhrānti denotes false knowledge about an object. Here the object is not unreal, false or non-existing, but it is mistaken as something different from it. In the case of the figurative expression, the mistake, error or illusion is not factual, but simply a poetic fancy. When it is really an error based on false knowledge (for example śuktau rajatam ie someone mistakes the oyester shell as a piece of silver), it is not a poetic figure since such a matter-of-fact error produces no charm at all for the reader of poetry.

In actual bhrānti, the close identity of two things (for example oyester shell and silver or rope and snake) is based on matter-offact reality, but in rhetorical statement, the error is nothing but a poetic image.

Daṇḍin does not recognise it as a separate figure but accepts it as a variety of Simile termed as moha-upama (ie simile based on illusion). Bhoja mentions some minor varieties of Bhrāntimān and finally concludes that Bhrānti-mālā, Upamā-bhrānti are not different from Bhrānti or Bhrāntimān. This figure based on close resemblance between two similar object is different from Metaphor and Hyperbole, which are basically formulated on the principle of close identification, but have no scope of illusion.

eg 1. ayaṃ pramatta-madhupas tvan-mukhaṃ veda paṃkajam अयं प्रमत्तमधुपस्त्वन्मुखं वेद पंकजम् । This bee intoxicated as he is, Acknowledges thy face for the lotus.

Here the object of comparison (ie the beautiful face) has been mistaken as the standard of comparison (ie the lotus). In such poetic fancy, the two objects are qualitatively so identical that the face of the beautiful lady is mistaken as the lotus.

Definitions

अर्थविशेषं पश्यन्नवगच्छेदन्यमेव तत्सदृशम् । निःसंदेहं यस्मिन्प्रतिपत्ता भ्रान्तिमान् स इति ॥ रु.का. ६.१२० भ्रान्तिर्विपर्ययज्ञानम् ... ... । स. ३ । ३४ भ्रान्तिमान् अन्यसंवित्तत्तुल्यदर्शने । का. प्र. १०.२०० सादृश्यात् वस्त्वन्तरप्रतीतिर्भ्रान्तिमान् । अ. स. २६ वस्तुन्यन्यत्र कुत्रापि तत्तुल्यस्यान्यवस्तुनः । निश्चयो यत्र जायते भ्रान्तिमान् स स्मृतो यथा ॥ वा. ४.७३ विपर्ययो भ्रान्तिः । हे. का. ६.३५ वस्त्वन्तरप्रतीतिर्विलसंति सादृश्यहेतुका यत्र । तं भ्रान्तिमन्तमेतं ब्रूवतेऽलंकारपारदृश्वानः । ए. ८.९ कविसंमतसादृश्याद् विषये पिहितात्मनि । आरोप्यमाणानुभवो यत्र स भ्रान्तिमान् मतः ॥ प्र. य. ३८० साम्यादतस्मिंस्तद्बुद्धिर्भ्रान्तिमान् प्रतिभोत्थितः । सा. १०.३६ मिथ्याज्ञानं भ्रान्तिः । वा. का. ३ कविसंमतसादृश्याद् विषये पिहितात्मनि । आरोप्यमाणानुभवो यत्र स भ्रान्तिमान् मतः ॥ चि. भ्रान्तिमांस्तबुद्धिरतस्मिन् साम्यभाजि यत् । अ. कौ. ८.३०६ सदृशे धर्मिणि तादात्म्येन धर्म्यन्तरप्रकारकोऽनाहार्यो निश्चयः सादृश्यप्रयोज्यश्चमत्कारो प्रकृते भ्रान्तिः । पशुपक्ष्यादिगता यस्मिन् वाक्यसन्दर्भेऽनूद्यते स भ्रान्तिमान्। र. २ तदभाववति मतिस्तप्रकारिका भ्रान्तिमान् भवति । अ-कौ. ४६ <headword>मालादीपक</headword>

मालादीपकम् Mālādīpakam : Serial Illuminator :

The name indicates that it is a variety of the figure Dīpaka (Illuminator). But it is slightly different from Dīpaka though Mammaṭa accepts it as a variety of Dīpaka as Mālopamā (Chained Simile) is known as a variety of Upamā. The word mālā in Mālāupamā has been used in the sense of chain while in mālā-Dīpaka mālā is used in the sense of serial. The basic charm of mālā-Dīpaka lies with this serial. This figure is different from Ekāvalī

eg 1. smareṇa hṛdaye tasyās tena tvayi kṛtā sthitiḥ

स्मरेण हृदये तस्यास्तेन त्वयि कृता स्थितिः ।

Cupid has taken shelter in her heart, And thy lover took thee as his resort.

Definitions

पूर्वस्य पूर्वस्योत्तरगुणावहत्वे मालादीपकम् । अ. स. ५५ यदा तु पूर्वपूर्वस्य सम्भवेदुत्तरोत्तरम् । प्रत्युत्कर्षावहत्वं तन्मालादीपकमुच्यते ॥ प्र. य. ८.२७३

<headword>मीलित</headword>

मीलितम् Mīlitam : Reconciliation :

The word mīlita (√mīl to unite ta < kta) literally means union, combination, meeting, reconciliation etc. When two different objects having identical features become united in such a manner that one of them, which is more prominent, becomes totally enveloped by the other which is less prominent, the figure of speech is called Mīlita. Here the superiority or inferiority of the objects is not real but comes through poetic fancy which is the basic feature of rhetorical structure. So Mammaṭa says that the attributes or qualities of the object might be natural or imaginary. Here the real subject matter and the non-referent are identical in quality and due to close similarity the qualities of the more qualified combine with those of the less qualified one. The figures like Mīlita, Sāmānya and Tadguṇa bear one common feature ie non-perception of the difference between the two objects or their qualities. Therefore, the question arises whether such figures should be brought under one figure. Bhoja remarks that Pihita, Apihita, Tadguṇa and Atadguṇa should be included in Mīlita. But Jagannātha observes that each of these has its own basic identity and creates its own shade of beauty. So he remarks if these figures are broadly identified as identical then there would be no difference among Rūpaka, Pariṇāma and Atiśayokti, or between Prativastūpamā and Nidarśanā. Ruyyaka says that Sāmānya is not identical with Mīlita since in the former the qualities of both are concealed while in the latter the qualities of the less prominent are concealed through supersession.

Mīlita is also different from Rūpaka and Bhrāntimān. In Rūpaka, there is total identity between similar objects, but in Mīlita, no such identification is witnessed. In Bhrāntimān, one object is mistakenly identified as another on account of close similarity between them, but in Mīlita no such mistake crops up.

eg 1.raso nālakṣi lākṣāyāś caraṇe sahajāruṇe. रसो नालक्षि लाक्षायाश् चरणे सहजारुणे । The colour of lac-dye could not be known, As her feet, by nature, were crimson.

Definitions

तन्मीलितमिति यस्मिन्समानचिह्वेन हर्षकोपादि । अपरेण तिरस्क्रियते नित्येनागन्तुकेनापि ॥ रु. का. ६.१०६ वस्त्वन्तरतिरस्कारो वस्तुना मीलितं स्मृतम् । स. ३.४० समेन लक्ष्मणा वस्तु वस्तुना यन्निगृह्यते । निजोनागन्तुना वापि तन्मीलितमिति स्मृतम् ॥ का. प्र. १०.१६७ वस्तुना वस्त्वन्तरनिगूहनं मीलितम् । अ. स. ७१ मीलितं बहुसादृश्योद्भेद एव न लक्ष्यते । च. ५.३४ स्वाभाविकमागन्तुकमथवा वस्त्वन्तरं तिरोधत्ते । यस्मिन् किञ्चन वस्तु ज्ञेयं तन्मीलितं द्विविधम् ॥ ए. ८.६३ व्याजोक्त्युत्तरं किंचित्साम्यान्मीलनमुच्यते । मीलनं वस्तुना यत्र वस्त्वन्तरनिगूहनम् ॥ प्र. य. ४१३ मीलितं वस्तुनो गुप्तिः केनचित्तुल्यलक्ष्मणा । सा. १०.८६ नित्येनागन्तुना वापरेण हर्षकोपादि यत्र तिरस्क्रियते तन्मीलितम् । वा. का. ३ मीलितं यदि सादृश्याद्भेद एव न लक्ष्यते । कु. ७६.१४६ तुल्येन लक्ष्मणा स्तोकेनान्यद्यदि निगूह्यते । सहजेनेतरेणापि तन्मीलितमपि द्विधा ॥ अ. कौ. ८.३०६ स्फुटमुपलभ्यमानस्य कस्यचिद्वस्तुनो लिङ्गैरतिसाम्याद् भिन्नत्वेनागृह्यमाणानां वस्त्वन्तरलिङ्गानां स्वकारणानुमापकत्वं मीलितम् । र. २ सहजनिमित्तजधर्मात् सदृशादन्येन वस्तुना वस्तु । अपिधीयते यदेतन्मीलितमाहुर्विशेषज्ञाः ॥ अ-कौ. ५७

<headword>मुद्रा </headword>

मुद्रा Mudrā : Arrangement :

The word mudrā literally means sign, stamp, seal; it is an uncommon alaṃkāra and recognised by Appayya and a few others. Rhetorically it is Mudrā when some words intentionally used by the poet offer some secondary meanings of some particular phrases or give a secondary sense without the help of double entendere (ie śleṣa). But this figure may be taken as a variety of Śleṣa (Pun).

eg  udaya-navendusavarṇā vāsavadattābalau balasya tām.
padmāvatīrṇa pūrṇau vasanta-kamrau bhujau pātām.
उदयनवेन्दुसवर्णा वासवदत्ताबलौ बलस्य ताम्।
पद्मावतीर्णपूर्णौ वसन्तकम्रौ भुजौ पाताम् ॥

This is the benedictory verse in Bhāsa's famous drama Svapna-vāsavadattam. Here the names of the main characters of the play have been mentioned through the peculiar <flag>seeting </flag>of words. Udayana, Vāsavadatta, Padmāvati and Vasantaka are the dramatis personae.

Definitions

सूच्यार्थसूचनं मुद्रा प्रकृतार्थपरैः पदैः । कु. ७३.२३९ <headword>यथासंख्य</headword>

यथासंख्यम् Yathāsaṃkhyam : Relative Order :

Yathāsaṃkhya literally means description of something in a relative order. Rhetorically it occurs when a reference about some object is poetically given in a methodical order or sequence. This figure is otherwise termed Saṃkhyāna or Krama by some scholars.

The salient features of this alaṃkāra are as follows: (i) there is a reference to two or more objects, (ii) these objects are ideally set in a proper sequence (ie one after another), (iii) the contextual and the non-contextual (ie the upameya and the upamāna or the prastuta and the aprastuta) are given in a definite order, (iv) either some words or ideas are put in a proper order, (v) some ideas are connected together in such a sequence that the entire meaning of the statement becomes revealed in the order of one idea focussing the another in the given order.

eg 1. śatruṃ mitraṃ dviṣat pakṣaṃ jaya ranjaya bhañjaya. शत्रुं मित्रं द्विषत्पक्षं / जय रंजय भंजय । Your foes, your friends, your enemies-You conquer, you satisfy, you subsidize.

Definitions

भूयसामुपदिष्टानां निर्देशः क्रमशस्तथा ॥ यथासंख्यमिति प्रोक्तमलंकारं पुरातनैः ॥ वि. १४.११.१२ उद्दिष्टानां पदार्थानामनूद्देशो यथाक्रमम् । यथासंख्यमिति प्रोक्तं संख्यानं क्रम इत्यपि ॥ का 2-273 भूयसामुपदिष्टानामर्थानामसधर्मणाम् । क्रमशो योऽनुनिर्देशो यथासंख्यं तदुच्यते ॥ का. सं. ३।२ उपमानोपमेयानां क्रमसंबन्धः क्रमः । का. सू. ४।३।१७ निर्दिश्यन्ते यस्मिन्नर्था विविधा ययैव परिपाट्या । पुनरपि तत्प्रतिबद्धास्तयैव तत्स्याद् यथासंख्यम् ॥ रु. का. ७.३४ यथासंख्यं क्रमेणैव क्रमिकाणां समन्वयः । का. प्र. १०.१६४ शब्दस्य यदि वार्थस्य द्वयोरप्यनयोरथ । भणनं परिपाट्या यत् क्रमः स परिकीर्तितः । स. ४.७६ उद्दिष्टानामर्थानां क्रमेणानुनिर्देशो यथासंख्यम् । अ. स. ६० यत्रोक्तानां पदार्थानामर्थाः सम्बन्धिनः पुनः । क्रमेण तेन बुद्ध्यन्ते तद् यथासंख्यमुच्यते ॥ वा. ४.१५ यथासंख्यं द्विधार्थाश्चेत् क्रमादेकैकमन्विताः । च. ५.८६ प्रथमं निर्दिष्टानां यस्मिन्नर्थान्तराश्रयोऽर्थानाम् अनुनिर्देशो भवति क्रमेण तत् स्याद्यथासंख्यम् ॥ ए. ८.५० उद्दिष्टानां पदार्थानां पूर्वं पश्चाद् यथाक्रमम्. अनूद्देशो भवेदं यत्र तद्यथासंख्यमिष्यते ॥ प्र. य. ८.२२६ यथासंख्यमनूद्दैश उद्दिष्टानां क्रमेण यत् ॥ सं. १०.७६ उद्देशक्रमेणार्थानां प्रतिनिर्देशो यथासंख्यम् । वा. का. ३ यथासख्यं क्रमेणैव क्रमिकाणां समन्वयः । कु. ५१.११० यथासंख्यं यथासंख्यं क्रमिकाणां यदन्वयः । अ. कौ. ८.२७३ उपदेशक्रमेणार्थानां संबन्धो यथासंख्यम् । र. २ निर्देशक्रमतो यदि समन्वयस्तद् यथासंख्यम् । अ. कौ. ३८

<headword>यमक<\headword>

यमकम् Yamakam : Chime :

yama ka (<kan) means twin, twofold or double. As a figure of speech Yamaka is the repetition of syllables (consonants intermingled with vowels) or words similar in sound but different in meaning. The repetitive syllables may or may not form into word and, therefore, may have meaning fully or partly or they may not have any meaning at all. In vṛtti and cheka varieties of Anuprāsa (Alliteration) repetition of vowels occurs, but in Yamaka both vowels and consonants are intermingled. Udbhaṭa, Kuntaka and Jagannātha did not accept yamaka as a separate figure of sound. Perhaps they take it as a variety of Alliteration. Yamaka is primarily twofold--with break or without break in words (sabhanga and abhanga or vyapeta and avyapeta.)

Repetition may occur in the initial, middle or ending part, in the complete verse or in one or two feet. All these divisions along with their subdivisions give numerous varieties of this alaṃkāra. Bharata's Nāṭyaśāstra mentions only Yamaka as the figure of sound and illustrates ten varieties of it. Bhāmaha gives only five varieties, while Daṇḍin enumerates as many as sixty two types. Bhaṭṭi has given twenty two verses to illustrate the same number of divisions. Agnipurāṇa mentions ten principal varieties and admits countless minor varieties. Ruyyaka declares eighty seven classes of Yamaka in total. Rudraṭa admits that yamaka is countless and also advises that it should be applied profusely in classics by the epic poets.

In the nineth canto of the Raghuvaṃśa, Kālidāsa has exhibited his skill in yamaka composition in sixty four successive verses. Excepting this the poet shows nowhere any deliberate attempt to delineate such a grandeur of poetic figures so openly. Perhaps, this is the first attempt where Kālidāsa stands as the pioneer for the later Sanskrit poets of a rhetorical pattern which was fully developed within a few centuries. Following his footsteps a good number of Sanskrit poets composed complete yamaka poems which are typical specimens of second or third grade poetry.

eg 1. sa me samāsamo māsaḥ sa me māsasamā samā. yo yātayā tayo yāti yā yātyātayā tayā. स मे समासमो मासः स मे माससमा समा । यो यातया तयो याति या यात्यातया तया ॥ That month seems to me a year, Which passes when my love is gone; That year seems to me a month, Which fades after her return.

Definitions

भिन्नार्थैकरूपा च वर्णसंघातावृत्तिर्यमकम् । श्रृ. १० भिन्नार्थैकरूपाया याऽवृत्तिर्वर्णसंहतेः । अव्यपेतव्ययेतात्मा यमकं तन्निगद्यते ॥ सं. २.५८ अर्थे सत्यर्थभिन्नानां वर्णानां या पुनः श्रुतिर्यमकम् ॥ का. प्र. ११७ स्वरव्यञ्जनसमुदायपौनरुक्त्यं यमकम् । अ. स. ६ सत्यर्थेऽन्यार्थानां वर्णानां श्रुतिक्रमैक्ये यमकम् । हे. का. १०6 इदमेव स्वरसहितं व्यञ्जनसमुदायमाश्रितं यमकम् । ए. ३.४ यमकं पौनरुक्त्ये स्वरव्यञ्जनयुग्मयोः । प्र. य. ३४२ सत्यर्थे पृथगर्थायाः स्वरव्यञ्जनसंहतेः । क्रमेण तेनैवावृत्तिर्यमकं विनिगद्यते ॥ सा. १०.८ तुल्यं श्रुतिक्रमाक्षरावृत्तिर्यमकम् । वा. का. ४ अतुल्यार्थत्वे समानानुपूर्वोविशेषविशिष्टनियतव्यञ्जनसमुदायाभ्यासो यमकम् । अ. शे. ४.१ यमकं त्वर्थभिन्नानां पदादीनां समाकृतिः । अ. कौ. ७.२०६ शव्दाभ्यासस्तु यमकं पादादिषु विकल्पितम् । ना. १६.५६ शब्दाः समानानुपूर्व्या यमकं कीर्तितं पुनः । वि. १४.२ अनेकवर्णावृत्तिर्या भिन्नार्थप्रतिपादिका यमकम्... ॥ अ. ३४२.११-१२ आवृत्तिर्वर्णसंघातगोचरां यमकं विदुः । का. ३.१ पदमनेकार्थमक्षरं व्यावृत्तं स्थाननियमे यमकं । का. सू. ४.१.१ तुल्यश्रुतिक्रमाणामन्यार्थानां मिथस्तु वर्णानाम् । पुनरावृत्तिर्यमकम्... ॥ रु. का. ३.१

<headword>युक्ति</headword>

युक्तिः Yuktih: Co-relation :

√yuj kti (<ktin) = yukti means union, amalgam, blending, co-relation etc. According to Bhoja Yukti as a figure of speech simply indicates the amalgamation of words, phrases, sentences or actions which are mutually co-related by any factual connection. But Appayya, in his Kuvalayānanda, has given a completely different definition. In his opinion, it is Yukti where the primary meaning being quite different from the intended sense is expressed through action in order to conceal the real intention of the expression. According to Bhoja it is an expression in the form of injunction, prohibition etc.

eg 1. purīm avaskanda lunīhi nandanaṃ. muṣāṇa ratnāni harāmarāṅganāḥ. पुरीमवस्कन्द लुनीहि नन्दनं मुषाण रत्नानि हरामराङ्गनाः । Besiege the capital, plunder the paradise, capture jewels And forcibly take away the celestial damsels.

This sentence is an injunction of the demon king towards his soldiers during their fight with gods in paradise. The statement has been given in the form of injunction. Besides the primary sense here it is implied that complete chaos has to be created in the kingdom of the gods.

Definitions

विधिनिषेधादेरभिधानं युक्तिः । श्रृ. १० युक्तिः पराभिसन्धानं क्रियया मर्मगुप्तये । कु. ८६.१५६

<headword>रचना</headword>

रचना Racanā : Style :

The word racanā (√rac anat ā) literally means composition, preparation, making up, arrangement etc. The alaṃkāra Racanā is the employment of appropriate word and meaning as well as combination of perfect sound and sense. Like Gati this uncommon figure also belongs to the stylistic pattern of poetry and recognised by Bhoja only. Bhoja has given sixfold divisions of it: (i) śabda:-racanā: combination of words, (ii) artha-racanā: combination of sound and sense, (iii) paryāya-racanā: combination of sequence, (iv) pada-racanā: combination of phrases, (v) krama-racanā: style in pattern and (vi) śabda-artha-racanā: matching of perfect sound and sense.

From Bhoja's idea we can say that any successful poem can be a specimen of Racanā.

eg 1. adharaṃ madhuraṃ vadanaṃ madhuraṃ nayanaṃ madhuraṃ hasitaṃ madhuram अधरं मधुरं वदनं मधुरं नयनं मधुरं हसितं मधुरम् । Sweet are the lips, face sweet, Sweet are the eyes, smile sweet.

2. nṛpābhiṣeke mada-vihvalāyā / hastāccuto hemaghaṭo'balāyāḥ. sopāna-mārge patitaḥ karoti / ṭha-ṭhaṃ ṭha-ṭhaṃ ṭhaṃ ṭha-ṭha-ṭhaṃ ṭha-ṭhaṃ ṭhaḥ नृपाभिषेके मदविह्वलाया / हस्ताच्चुतो हेमघटोsबलायाः । सोपानमार्गे पतितः करोति / ठ-ठं ठ-ठं ठं ठ-ठठं ठ-ठं ठः ॥ On the occasion of the King's corronation The golden pitcher from the hands of the lady dropped on; Intoxicated she was, and it fell on the stairs Making a sound ṭha-ṭhaṃ ṭha-ṭhaṃ ṭhaṃ Ṭha-ṭha-ṭhaṃ ṭha-ṭhaṃ ṭhaḥ

<headword>रत्नावली</headword>

रत्नावली Ratnāvalī : Necklace :

ratna gem, āvalī bunch, and the word ratnāvalī means a necklace made of gems. When the special qualities of the subject in hand (ie prastuta) are attributed to some other (ie aprastuta), it is rhetorically known as Ratnāvalī.

eg 1. caturāsyaḥ patir lakṣmyāḥ sarvajñas tvaṃ mahīpate. चतुरास्यः पतिर्लक्ष्म्याः / सर्वज्ञस्त्वं महीपते । The consort of Lakṣmi is the four-mouthed deity, While you are, O king, the omniscient sovereignty.

Definition

क्रमिकं प्रकृतार्थानां न्यासं रत्नावलीं विदुः । कु. ३४.२८०

<headword>रूपक</headword>

रूपकम् Rūpakam : Metaphor :

It is √rūp (to impose, to imitate, to form, to represent) aka (<ṇvul) or rūpa ka. The word rūpa literally means form, figure, appearance, specimen, pattern, essence, grace, beauty, elegance etc. Rūpaka is Metaphor (meta beyond, phero I carry). As a figure of speech Rūpaka is complete identification between two or total superimposition of one on the other. Such identity happens due to very close resemblance between the objects having comparison. In such expression, the subject of discussion (ie upameya or the object of comparison) is represented as completely identical with some other object (ie upamāna or the standard of comparison). Therefore, it is Rūpaka-(i) when the upameya is equal to upamana or (ii) any Simile without like or as (ie when the slightest difference denoted by the direct use of a word, for example iva, tulya, sadṛśa, sama etc is removed) becomes a Metaphor.

eg  Love is like a singing bird. Simile Love is a singing bird. Metaphor krodha iva analaḥ: Anger is like fire. Upamā krodhānalaḥ : Anger is fire. Rūpaka

In Rūpaka, identity is based on extreme <flag>likenesse </flag>though the difference is not totally concealed, but any kind of superiority, inferiority or dissimilitude between the two is not expressed or implied. Bhāmaha observes that identification arises due to close resemblance of qualities present in both. Mammaṭa notes that absence of any sort of discrimination between the two is the basic principle of Rūpaka. It is termed as Rūpaka since it gives close resemblance (ie rūpa). The basic features of it may be identified thus: (i) according to some, it is total identification (rūpanivarṇana), (ii) according to others, it is super-imposition (tattvanirūpaṇa) or (iii) it is surrendering of one's own identity to other (sva-rūpa-arpaṇa) (iv) resemblance may be total or partial, direct or indirect, expressed or implied, (v) absence of any difference between the two (ie abheda) and (vi) common relationship between the two due to extended denotation (ie lakṣṇā or guṇavṛtti or sāmānādhikaraṇya).

Upamā does not imply abheda or close identification like Rūpaka, but expresses simple resemblance only. Rūpaka is condensed, compressed or implied simile. In Utprekṣā, there is identification (adhyavaśāna), but in Rūpaka it is super-imposition (abhedaāropa). In Utprekṣā, there is some sort of uncertainty in accepting the upamāna (ie the standard of comparison) as the upameya (ie the subject of comparison or the object of discussion). Rūpaka and Pariṇāma are based on close similarity, but in the former such extreme likeness occurs through the quality of poetic image, while in the latter it is simply due to the quality of action (kriyā).

There are three principal divisions of Rūpaka: i) complete in all parts, ii) partial and iii) consequential.

Daṇḍin admits that like Upamā Rūpaka has innumerable varieties, still he refers to some of the popular and common varieties: a) Rūpaka based on contrast (viruddha), b) based on incompatibility (viṣama), c) based on cause (hetu), d) based on superior or inferior quality (vyatireka), e) based on perfect similitude (upamā-rūpaka), f) based on perfect super-imposition (rūpaka-rūpaka) g) based on paronomasia (śleṣa-rūpaka), h) based on particular word/words (śabda-pradhāna), i) based on special meaning (artha-pradhāna), j) based on special word and meaning (śabdārtha-pradhāna). eg 1. candramā pīyate devair mayā tu tvanmukha-candramā. चन्द्रमा पीयते देवैर् मया तु त्वन्मुखचन्द्रमा । Gods drink nectar of the moon While I drink the moon-face of thine. 2. ayaṃ ca surata-jvālaḥ kāmāgniḥ praṇayendhanaḥ. narāṇāṃ yatra hūyante yauvanāni dhanāni ca. अयं च सुरतज्वालः / कामाग्निः प्रणयेन्धनः । नराणां यत्र हूयन्ते / यौवनानि धनानि च ॥ Love is a flame ignited by lust, A fire flamed by passion, Wherein the offerings are just-The youth and the wealth of man. Definitions

स्वविकल्पेन रचितं तुल्यावयवलक्षणम् । किञ्चित्सादृश्यसम्पन्नं यद्रूपं रूपकं तु तत् ॥ नानाद्रव्यानुरागाद्यैर्यदौपम्यगुणाश्रयम् । रूपनिर्वर्णनायुक्तं तद्रूपकमिति स्मृतम् ॥ स्वविकल्पैर्विरचितं … … … । नानाद्रव्यानुषङ्गाद्यैर्यदौपम्यं … … … रूपनिर्वर्णायुक्तं तद्रूपकमिति स्मृतम् ॥ ना. १६.५६-५८ उपमानेन तुल्यत्वमुपमेयस्य रूपकम् । वि. १४.४ उपमैव तिरोभूतभेदा रूपकमुच्यते। का. २.६६ उपमानेन यत्तत्त्वमुपमेयस्य रूप्यते । गुणानां समतां दृष्ट्वां रूपकं नाम तद्विदुः ॥ भा. का. २.२१ श्रुत्या संबन्धविरहाद्यत्पदेन पदान्तरम् । गुणवृत्तिप्रधानेन युज्यते रूपकं तु तत् ॥ अ. सं. १.११ उपमानेनोपमेयस्य गुणसाम्यात् तत्त्वारोपो रूपकम्। का. सू. ४.३.६ यत्र गुणानां साम्ये सत्युपमानोपमेययोरभिदा । अविवक्षितसामान्या कल्प्यत इति रूपकं प्रथमम् ॥ उपसर्जनोपमेयं कृत्वा तु समासमेतयोरुभयोः । यत्तु प्रयुज्यते तद्रूपकमन्यत् समासोक्तम् ॥ रु. का. ८.३८,४० उपमैव तिरोभूतभेदा रूपकमेव वा ॥ अ. ३४४.२२-२३ उपमानेन यत्तत्त्वमुपमेयस्य रूप्यते । गुणानां समतां दृष्टा रूपकं नाम तद्विदुः ॥ उपचारैकसर्वस्वं (यत्र तत्) साम्यमुद्वहन् । यदर्पयति रूपं स्वं वस्तु तद्रूपकं विदुः ॥ व ३.२१ यदोपमानशब्दानां गौणवृत्तिव्यपाश्रयात् । उपमेये भवेद्वृत्तिस्तदा तद्रूपकं विदुः ॥ स. ४.२४ उपमैवोत्पन्नसादृश्यात्तिरोभूतभेदा रूपकम् । श्रृ. १० तद्रूपकमभेदो य उपमानोपमेययोः । का. प्र. १०.१३६ भेदप्राधान्ये आरोपे आरोपविषयापह्नवे रूपकम् । अ. स. १६ रूपकं यत्र साधर्म्यादर्थयोरभिदा भवेत् । वा. ४.६६ सादृश्येऽभेदेनारोपो रूपकमेकानेकविषयम् । हे का. ६.५. यत्रोपमानचित्रेण सर्वथाप्युपरज्यते उपमेयमयी भित्तिस्तत्र रूपकमुच्यते ॥ च. ५.१८ तद्रूपकमारोपे यत्रापह्नूयते न तद्विषयः । आरोपविषयस्य स्यादतिरोहितरूपिणः । उपरञ्जकमारोप्यमाणं तद्रूपकं मतम् ॥ प्र. य. ३७१ रूपकं रूपितारोपाद्विषये निरपह्नवे । सा. १०.२८ सादृश्याद् भेदेनारोपो रूपकम् । वा. का. ३ तद्रूपकमभेदो यो उपमानोपमेययोः । अ. शे. ४,३ आरोपविषयस्य स्यादतिरोहितरूपिणः । उपरञ्जकमारोप्यमाणं तद्रूपकं मतम् ॥ चि. विषय्यभेदताद्रूप्यरञ्जनं विषयस्य यत् । रूपकं तत्रिधाधिक्यन्यूनत्वानुभयोक्तिभिः ॥ कु. ५.१७ रूपकन्तु तत् यत्तादात्म्यं द्वयोः । अ. कौ. ८.२३६ उपमेयतावच्छेदकपुरस्कारेणोपमेये शब्दानिश्चीयमानमुपमानतादात्म्यं रूपकम् । र. २ तद्रूपकं त्वभेदः स्यादुपमानोपमेययोर्यत्र । अ-को. २१

<headword>ललित</headword>

ललितम् Lalitam : The Graceful :

The word lalita (√lal ta <kta) literally means beautiful, pretty, graceful, charming etc. When the phonetic quality is perfectly befitting to the semantic aspect of the expression, the figure of speech is called Lalita. Bhoja's treatment of Racanā shows that Lalita is but a variety of Racanā.

eg 1. kaṇṭakenaiva kaṇṭakam. कण्टकेनैव कण्टकम् । A nail has to be uprooted by a nail. e.g.. lalita-lavaṅga-latā-pariśīlana-komala-malaya-samīre madhukara-nikara-karambita-kokila-kūjitakuñja-kuṭīre viharati haririha sarasa-vasante ... ललित-लवङ्गलता-परिशीलन-कोमलमलयसमीरे मधुकर-निकर-करम्बित-कोकिल-कूजितकुञ्जकुटीरे विहरति हरिरिह सरसवसन्ते ... Soft sandal mountain winds caress quivering vines of clove, Forest huts hum with droning bees and crying cuckoos, When spring's mood is rich, Hari roams here. These lines from Jayadeva's Gītagovinda describe the advent of the spring. Here musical effect produced by phonetic timbre is quite befitting to the context.

Definitions

वर्ण्य स्याद्वर्णवृत्तान्तप्रतिबिम्बस्य वर्णनम् । कु. ६६.१२४ प्रकृतधर्मिणि प्रकृतव्यवहारानुल्लेखेन निरूप्यमाणोऽप्रकृतव्यवहारसम्बन्धो ललितालंकारः । र २

<headword>लेश</headword>

लेशः Leśaḥ : Reverse :

Three figures of sense Hetu, Sūkṣma and Leśa belong to a class by themselves. Hetu (ie Poetical Cause) has been discussed earlier. Rhetorically it is Leśa when the merits or demerits of something are either concealed or twisted in such a way that the merits appear as demerits or the demerits appear as merits.

Daṇḍin gives two verieties of Leśa and they occur in the following manner: (i) the real nature of an object is partially exposed, but it remains almost veiled and there is neither eulogy nor decrying about it, (ii) the real nature of an object is partially exposed in such a way that either it is praised or blamed; if it is praised it is but an eulogy instead of its faults; if it is decried it is but a blemish in spite of its merits.

eg 1. akhileṣu vihaṅgeṣu / hanta svacchandacāriṇaḥ. śuka pañjarabaddhas te / madhurāṇāṃ girāṃ phalam. अखिलेषु विहङ्गेषु / हन्त स्वच्छन्दचारिणः । शुक पञ्जरबद्धस्ते / मधुराणां गिरां फलम् ॥ Of all the birds, free to fly at will O parrot,caged only you are; And it's indeed the result Of the sweet voice you utter! लेशो लेशेन निर्भिन्नवस्तुरूपनिगूहनम् । का. १.२६४ दोषभावो यस्मिन् गुणस्य दोषस्य वा गुणीभावः । अभिधीयते तथाविधकर्मनिमित्तः स लेशः स्यात् ॥ रु. का. ७.१०० दोषस्य यो गुणीभावो दोषीभावो गुणस्य च । स लेशः स्यात् ... ॥ स. ४.५८ कार्यतो गुणदोषविपर्ययो लेशः । वा. का. ३ लेशः स्याद्दोषगुणयोर्गुणदोषत्वकल्पनम् । कु. ७२.१३८ गुणस्यानिष्टसाधनतया दोषत्वेनन दोषस्येष्टसाधनतया गुणत्वेन च वर्णनं लेशः । र. २

<headword>वक्रोक्तिः</headword> वक्रोक्तिः Vakroktiḥ : Innuendo :

vakra ukti (√vac kti <ktin) literally means an ambiguous or charming or twisted or artful expression or statement, a kind of exaggeration by any twisted way of expression, or a covert expression of something else than what is expressed by word or words. As a figure of speech Vakrokti consists in the use of evasive speech or expression either by means of Śleṣa (Pun) or by change of tone (kāku). Most of the rhetoricians like Daṇḍin, Bhāmaha, Rudraṭa, Viśvanātha did not define it but praised it as an important figure as well as an ideal device of literary expression for the poets.

Daṇḍin remarks that paronomastic expression (Śleṣa) enhances the beauty of all figurative speech with Vakrokti. Bhāmaha says that Vakrokti has to be applied in all classes of literary language and its charm is wholesomely agreeable in poetic device. He also prescribes that each and every poet should sincerely use Vakrokti and remarks that this device is the basic principle lying in all poetic expressions. Vāmana defines it as lakṣaṇā or extended denotation, that implies something more than what is expressed (for example siṃho mānavakaḥ ie The boy is a lion). Therefore, in his opinion, many famous figures such as Rūpaka (Metaphor), Pariṇāma, (Commutation), Samāsokti (Personification), Dīpaka (Illuminator) as well as all cases of lakṣaṇā (or the extraordinary sense implied by extended denotation) are the varieties of Vakrokti. So, according to Vāmana's version, Vakrokti may be broadly identified with English Metaphor. Thus we can say that any metaphorical expression is Vakrokti, it is the essence of poetry and without it no poetry is worthy of its name. Kuntaka, in his Vakrokti-jīvita (or Vakrokti, the soul of poetry), has given it the foremost position in the realm of literary criticism and by his scholastic approach established that all poetic devices known as alaṃkāra (figures of speech), guṇa (literary excellences), rīti (stylistic diction), lakṣanā (extended denotation), vyañjanā (suggestive meaning) are nothing but innumerable varieties of Vakrokti. For example, Anuprāsa (Alliteration), according to him, is a kind of artistic syllabic pattern (varṇa-vinyāsa-vakratā); all figures based on meaning (artha-alaṃkāras) are nothing but upacāra-vakratā (ie stylistic expression based on denotative or connotative sense). Abhinavagupta has sometimes used the term vakrokti as synonymous to alaṃkāra. Daṇḍin made two broad groups of figures of sense (artha-alaṃkāras)--svabhāva-ukti (natural expression) and vakra-ukti (stylistic expression), while Bhoja gives one more division, besides these two, which is called rasa-ukti (suggestive poetry). But it is Bhāmaha who first hinted that vakrokti stands as the basic principle of figurative speech, and he also declares that svabhāvokti (natural description) is no alaṃkāra at all. Last of all Kuntaka established the theory of vakrokti and used it in the widest sense of the term denoting all types of poetic art of language and beauty of expression. Rudraṭa, Mammaṭa, Viśvanātha and others treated it simply as a figure of speech and thus made its scope very limited. According to them, Vakrokti is either a figure of word or meaning. Mammaṭa and his followers explain that any poetic expression used in one sense by the speaker and then accepted in a different sense through pun or change of tone by the hearer is called Vakrokti. Keśavamiśra says that it is no other than Vākovākya.

eg 1. smṛtā bhavati tāpāya / dṛṣṭā conmādakāriṇī, spṛṣṭā bhavati mohāya / sā nāma dayitā katham. स्मृता भवति तापाय / दृष्टा चोन्मादकारिणी । स्पृष्टा भवति मोहाय / सा नाम दयिता कथम् ॥ Remembered she causes nothing but pain, Coming to the eyes she makes me insane, Touched she creates infatuation-How can she deserve the sweat heart appellation?

Definitions

सादृश्याल्लक्षणा वक्रोक्तिः । का. सू. ४।३८ वक्ता तदन्यथोक्तं व्याचष्टे चान्यथा तदुत्तरदः । वचनं तत्पदभङ्गैर्ज्ञेया सा श्लेषवक्रोक्तिः ॥ विस्पष्टं क्रियमाणदिक्लिष्टा स्वरविशेषतो भवति । अर्थान्तरप्रतीतिर्यत्रासौ काकुवक्रोक्तिः ... ॥ रु का. १.१४, १५ यदुक्तमन्यथा वाक्यमन्यथान्येन योज्यते । श्लेषेण काक्वा वा ज्ञेया सा वक्रोक्तिः ... ॥ का. प्र. ६.७८ प्रस्तुतादपरं वाच्यमुपादायोत्तरप्रदः । भङ्गश्लेषमुखेनाह यत्र वक्रोक्तिरेव सा ॥ वा. ४.१४ वक्रोक्तिः श्लेषकाकुभ्यां वाच्यार्थान्तरकल्पनम् । च. ५.१०६ वाक्यं यदन्यथोक्तं केनाप्यन्येन योज्यतेऽपरथा । तत् काकुश्लेषाभ्यां यदि वक्रोक्तिस्तदा स्फुरति ॥ ए. ८.७१ अन्यस्यान्यार्थकं वाक्यमन्यथा योजयेद्यदि । अन्यः श्लेषेण काक्वा वा सा वक्रोक्तिस्ततो द्विधा ॥ सा. १० परोक्तस्य श्लेषेण काक्वा वान्यथोक्तिर्वक्रोक्तिः । वा. का. ४ अन्याभिप्रायेणोक्तं वाक्यमन्यार्थकतया यद् योज्यते सा वक्रोक्तिः । अ. शे. वक्रोक्तिः श्लेषकाकुभ्यामपरार्थप्रकल्पनम् । कु. ६१.१४६ एकेनार्थेन यत्प्रोक्तमन्येनार्थेन चान्यथा । क्रियते श्लेषकाकुभ्यां सा वक्रोक्तिः ... ॥ अ. को ७.१६५ अन्याभिप्रायेणोक्तं वाक्यमन्येनान्यार्थकतया यद् योज्यते सा वक्रोक्तिः । र. २

<headword>वाकोवाक्य</headword>

वाकोवाक्यम् Vākovākyam : Artful Diction :

vāk is word, speech, uttering and vākya is sentence, saying, argument, syllogism, aphorism etc. The figure Vākovākya denotes artful diction, scholastic expression, ambiguous statement etc. In the field of rhetoric, it implies a variety of stylistic expression or, in the widest sense, an art of oratory in the form of a dialogue or conversation or debate. Vākovākya has got some relevance to Greek rhetoric which originally means the art of public speaking. In Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika logic, we come across different types of syllogistic argumentation lika vāda, vitaṇḍa and jalpa.

In Sanskrit rhetoric, there is a special class of figures combined with the term ukti (statement or expression). These are termed as: (i) svabhāva-ukti (natural statement), (ii) vakra-ukti (ambiguous statement), (iii) atiśaya-ukti (hyperbolic statement), (iv) praśna-uttara-ukti (statement in the form of question-andanswer), (v) cheka-ukti (polite statement), (vi) rasa-ukti (suggestive statement) and (vii) samāsa-ukti (concise statement).

It may be noted that, in a broad sense, all the figures of thought (arthālaṃkāras) are fundamentally different varieties of expression or diction (ukti) and, therefore, rhetoricians like Daṇḍin, Ānandavardhana and Bhoja have discovered the basic principle of rhetorical speech in four categories of literary expression: (i) svabhava-ukti (simple or natural diction), (ii) vakra-ukti (artful or ambiguous diction), (iii) atiśaya-ukti (extra-ordinary or hyperbolic diction), and (iv) rasa-ukti (suggestive diction).

Here Vākovākya is restricted to the common varieties of rhetorical figures excluding the prominent ones like Atiśayokti (Hyperbole), Samāsokti (Personification), Svabhāvokti (natural statement)

According to Bhoja the varieties of Vākovākya are as follows: (a) ṛjūkti (unambiguous statement), (b) vakra-ukti (sarcastic or paronomastic statement), (c) vaiyātya-ukti (superflous or hyperbolic statement), (d) gūḍha-ukti (condensed statement).

Each of these may be subdivided as follows: (i) the first one may be either grāmyā (rustic) or upa-nāgarikā (sophisticated), (ii) the second one may be either nirvyūḍhā (accomplished) or anirvyūḍhā (plain), (iii) the third one may be either svābhāvika (natural) or naimittika (casual), (iv) the fourth one may be either mukhya (primary) or gauṇa (secondary).

All of these may again have two varieties-- abhidhīyamāna (expressively stated) or pratīyamāna (implied or suggested).

Bhoja has recognised another class of this figure named as Citrokti (Fascinating Statement). Various artistic as well as logical devices, common tricks or popular idioms recognised as separate alaṃkāras by Bhoja should be treated under the perview of Vākovākya. But Mammaṭa remarks that all such figures should be included in Vyājokti.

Numerous examples of Vākovākya are given below:

eg1.. bhāva-sthirāṇi jananāntara-sauhṛdāni. भावस्थिराणि जननान्तर-सौहृदानि । All sweet companionships of our previous births are imprinted in our souls: 2. na hi mānuṣāt parataraṃ kiñcit. . न हि मानुषात् परतरं किंचित् । There is nothing superior to man 3. durlabho hi śucir naraḥ . दुर्लभो हि शुचिर्नरः । A person pure in all respects is but rare. 4. munīnāñca mati-bhramaḥ. मुनीनाञ्च मतिभ्रमः । Even the wise are subject to bewilderment.

Definitions

उक्तिप्रत्युक्तिमद् वाक्यं वाकोवाक्यं विदुर्बुधाः । यस्तु पर्यनुयोगस्य निर्भेदः क्रियते पदैः । <headword>विकल्प</headword>

विकल्पः Vikalpaḥ : The Alternative :

vi kalpa (√kp a) literally means an alternative, a substitute, doubt or fancy. In Yoga philosophy, the term vikalpa denotes a type of verbal knowledge which is literally false, but gives an actual statement of alternatives (vikalpa-vyavahāra). An example of such statement is śaśa-śṛnga ie the horns of a hare. It signifies that though the hare has no horns, yet such an expression is really used to denote a kind of false reality. Vikalpa rhetorically means choice of either between two or choice of any one among many things of equal merit. Such ornamental statement expressed through the device of alternatives becomes charming on account of its alternative choice from two or many things of identical nature or similar merit. Here the charm of expression lies in the fanciful idea of similitude. Therefore, when two or more opposite or contrasting objects are equally forceful as close alternatives and out of these one is acceptable or qualitatively comes out successful while the other or others are rejected or denied, the figure of speech attributed there is Vikalpa. Ruyyaka says that it is often based on śleṣa (paronomasia).

eg 1. patatyavirataṃ vāri / nṛtyanti śikhino mudā adya kāntaḥ kṛtānto vā / duḥkhasyāntaṃ kariṣyati. पतत्यविरतं वारि / नृत्यन्ति शिखिनो मुदा अद्य कान्तः कृतान्तो वा / दुःखस्यान्तं करिष्यति ॥ It's raining non-stop, peacocks with joy dancing Today it would be either my Love or Death ending my suffering. 2. hāroʼyaṃ hariṇākṣīṇāṃ luṭhati stana-maṇḍale. muktānāmapyavastheyaṃ ke vayaṃ smara-kiṃkarāḥ. हारोऽयं हरिणाक्षीणां लुठति स्तनमण्डले । मुक्तानामप्यवस्थेयं के वयं स्मरकिंकराः ॥ On the bosom of the doe-eyed damsels, this necklace rolls, Such is the plight there of even the pearls; Then who are we there for any bid, Who are merely the servants of Cupid!

In the first example, it is asserted that during the rainy season the sorrowful wife being separated from her husband thinks of two alternatives before her--either she should be reunited with her partner, or otherwise it would be unbearable for her to pass the rainy days without his company, and that means nothing but death.

In the second poem, the lover brings out the most pitiable condition of even the precious necklace made of pearls lying uncared for on the bosom of his beloved, and therefore, the condition of the lover, a human being, guided by sexual impulse, should be more pathetic. The alternate condition ie the preference of the lover in lieu of the jewel necklace near her heart is no better at all.

Definitions

तुल्यबलविरोधो विकल्पः । अ. स. ६५ तुल्यप्रमाणवैशिष्ट्यात् प्राप्तावेकत्र यौगपद्येन । उभयोः समानबलयोः स्फुरति विरोधे विकल्प इत्युक्तः ॥ ए. ८.५६ विकल्पस्तुल्यबलयोर्विरोधश्चातुरीयुतः । स. १०.८३ विरोधे तुल्यबलयोर्विकल्पालंकृतिर्मता । प्र. य. ८.२४०; कु. ५८.११ विरुद्धयोः पाक्षिको प्राप्तिर्विकल्पः । र. २

<headword>विकस्वर</headword>

विकस्वरः Vikasvaraḥ: Expansion:

The word vikasvara means opening, expanding, blossoming etc. When some particular or general proposition is poetically represented in order to support some other particular or general proposition, the figure of speech is called Vikasvara. Jayadeva and Appayya have tried to single out slight difference between Arthāntaranyāsa and Vikasvara. According to them, in the present figure of speech, one particular statement is supported by some general statement which is again supported by another general proposition. According to Mammaṭa and others, Vikasvara should be included in Arthāntaranyāsa. Jagannātha also says that it should not be treated as a separate figure since it is in no way different from Arthāntaranyāsas or Saṃsṛṣṭi (ie a combination of a pair of Arthāntaranyāsa or an Arthāntaranyāsa and Upamā.

Definition

यस्मिन् विशेषसामान्यविशेषाः स विकस्वरः । च. कु. ६२।१२४ <headword>विचित्र</headword>

विचित्रम् Vicitram : The Queer :

vi citra means strange, queer, wonderful, astonishing, variegated etc. Rhetorically Vicitra is a figure of sense where someone is represented as doing something that is opposite to what he actually desires through it. It is called Vicitra because here we find that something strage is happening and thus creating a sense of wonder for it. Appayya defines it very clearly. The whole idea of the statement, according to him, appears to be opposite to one's efforts in relation to one's attainments for some higher interest. Jayaratha informs us that it is Ruyyaka who defines the figure for the first time. Mammaṭa includes it in Viṣāda, but there are others who think that it is simply a variety of Viṣama. But Viśwanātha and others have tried to differentiate Vicitra from Viṣama on the following points: (i) firstly the relation of cause and effect is not very prominent in Vicitra unlike Viṣama and (ii) secondly Vicitra shows some sort of personal effort for the benefit of a good result, while in Viṣama the effect is found to be operated out of its own accord.

eg 1. namanti santas trailokyādapi labdhuṃ parāṃ samunnatim. नमन्ति सन्तस्त्रैलोक्यादपि लब्धुं परां समुन्नतिम् । Even the pious stoop too low To obtain the highest dignity in heaven, earth and below.

Definitions

स्वविपरीतफलनिष्पत्तये प्रयत्नो विचित्रम् । अ. स. ४ विचित्रं चेत्प्रयत्नः स्याद्विपरीतफलप्रदः । च. ५.८० कारणविपरीतफलोत्पत्तौ यत्नो विचित्रमित्युक्तम्। ए. ८.३६ विचित्रं स्वविरुद्धस्य फलप्राप्त्यर्थमुद्यमः । प्र. य. ४२४ विचित्रं तद् विरुद्धस्य कृतिरिष्टफलाय चेत् । सा. १०.७१ विचित्रं तत्प्रयत्नश्चेद्विपरीतः फलेच्छया । कु. ४०.६४ इष्टसिद्ध्यर्थमिष्टैषिणा क्रियमाणविपरीताचरणं विचित्रम् । र. २ <headword>वितर्क</headword> वितर्कः  Vitarkaḥ :  Rhetoric Argument :

vi tarka literally means logic, agrument, debate, reasoning etc. In the science of logic, it is termed ūha that stands between doubt and ascertainment. As a figure of speech Vitarka consists in considering one thing through various alternatives which are equal in merit. In different stages of philosophical argumentation, vitarka is one of the stages of logical approach to be followed for the establishment of the truth. Those who do not accept Vitarka as a separate figure include it under Sandeha, Saṃśaya or Saṃbhāvanā.

Any matter-of-fact argument has nothing to do with this figure of speech since such an expression is devoid of any kind of poetic beauty. For example: sthāṇur vā, puruṣo vā.--Is it a pillar or a man? Vitarka is twofold: (i) argument finally reaching to a conclusion with ascertainment (nirṇayānta) and (ii) only argument without any conclusion (anirṇayānta). eg 1. svapno nu māyā nu matibhramo nu! स्वप्नो नु माया नु मतिभ्रमो नु । Is it a dream! an illusion! or mental delusion! 2.kim induḥ kiṃ padmaṃ kimu mukura-bimbaṃ kimu mukham, kimabje kiṃ mīnau kimu madana-vāṇau kimu dṛśau, khagau vā gucchau vā kanaka-kalaśau vā kucau taḍid vā tārā vā kanaka-latikā vā kim abalā. किमिन्दुः किं पद्मं किमु मुकुरबिम्बं किमु मुखम् । किमब्जे किं मीनौ किमु मदनवाणौ किमु दृशौ । खगौ वा गुच्छौ वा कनककलशौ वा कुचौ तडिद् वा तारा वा कनकलतिका वा किमबला ॥ Is this the moon, a lotus, reflection in a mirror or the face? Is this a pair of lotuses or fishes, arrows of Cupid or eyes? Are they swans, flower bunches, golden pots or breasts of a female? Is this a lightning flash, a star, a golden creeper or a damsel?

Here we find some argument or debate for several alternatives nicely selected by the poet while describing the beautiful features of the lady (ie her face, eyes, breasts as well as the entire figure). Definitions

ऊहो वितर्कः सन्देहनिर्णयान्तराधिष्ठितः । स. ३.३६ सन्देहनिर्णयान्तरालवर्त्यूहो वितर्कः । श्रृ. १० संभावनं यदीत्थं स्यादित्यूहोऽन्यप्रसिद्धये । च. ५.४६ संभावना यदीत्थं स्यादूहोऽन्यस्य सिद्धये । कु. १२६

<headword>विध्याभास</headword>

विध्याभासः Vidhyābhāsaḥ: Prescription :

vi √dhā ki = vidhi injunction, ā √bhās ac = ābhāsa reflection, resemblance, likeness, semblance, false appearance. As a figure of speech Vidhyābhāsa denotes prescription of some undesired or unwarranted action. Here we find that, in order to negate some undesired result some other thing is prescribed in the form of injunction, but such injunction being undesirable turns to prohibition (niṣedha). According to Ruyyaka it is a variety of Ākṣepa (Paralipsis)

eg 1. gaccha gacchasi cet kānta / śivās te santu panthānaḥ, mamāpi janma tatraiva / bhūyād yatra gato bhavān. गच्छ गच्छसि चेत् कान्त / शिवास्ते सन्तु पन्थानः । ममापि जन्म तत्रैव / भूयाद् यत्र गतो भवान् Please leave, if you are departing, Auspicious be thy wanderings; May I be there again born-Where you would have gone.

This verse is an appeal of the beloved lady when her husband is ready to depart to a distant place. So the couple would remain separated for a long time and therefore, the lady expresses her good wishes so that her husband might have a safe journey. But in the second sentence she expresses her desire to be born again in the land where her husband would stay for the period of their separation. But through this desire it is implied that the pangs of separation may cause an end to her life. Therefore it is suggested that such injunction turns into a prohibition which implies that the husband must not go leaving the wife alone. Definitions

अनिष्टविधानं विध्याभासः । ए.२०.७५ अनिष्टस्य तथार्थस्य विध्याभासः परो मतः । सा. २०.६५

<headword>विनोक्ति</headword>

विनोक्तिः Vinoktiḥ : Speech of Absence :

vinā ukti (√vac kti) literally means exclusive statement. Rhetorically Vinokti is a figure in which an object in the absence of some other object is represented as agreeable or disagreeable. Here the particle vinā (meaning exclusion or absence of something) may be directly used or its sense may be implied. This figure is a statement of poetic affirmation through negation or it is a kind of negative approach for a positive assertion. Here the object of description is by nature fair or agreeable by itself, but it is poetically represented as unfair or disagreeable due to the absence of some other object or thing. Vinokti is just the opposite of Sahokti in form and meaning.

eg 1.vinayena vinā kā śrīḥ / kā niśā śaśinā vinā ? rahitā sat-kavitvena / kīdṛśī vāg-vidagdhatā ? विनयेन विना का श्रीः / का निशा शशिना विना । रहिता सत्कवित्वेन / कीदृशी वाग्विदग्धता ॥ What is beauty-If it is without modesty? What is a night -If it is without moonlight? What is elegance of diction -If it is bereft of poetic imagination?

2. nirarthakaṃ janma gataṃ nalinyā yayā na dṛṣṭaṃ tuhināṃśu-bimbam. utpattir indorapi niṣphalaiva dṛṣṭā vinidrā nalinī na yena. निरर्थकं जन्म गतं नलिन्या / यया न दृष्टं तुहिनांशुबिम्बम् । उत्पत्तिरिन्दोरपि निष्फलैव / दृष्टा विनिद्रा नलिनी न येन ॥ A lotus passes its life in vain Because it cannot see the rays of the moon. And the life of the moon too is not fruitfully bright Because the sleepless lotus never comes to its sight.

In the first example, the particle vinā has been directly used and the objects like beauty, night and elegance of diction without (vinā) their proper combinations have been represented as disagreeable.

In the second example, the sense of absence or exclusion of something has been implied. Here the words indu (used as masculine meaning the moon and nalini (used as feminine meaning the lotus) have been personified as the lover and the beloved. So it is a kind of poetic fancy which tries to establish that the life of the lotus without the rays of the moon becomes useless and simultaneously the moon being unable to have a look at the sleepless lotus becomes most unfortunate.

Definitions

विनोक्तिः सा विनान्येन यत्रान्यः सन्न नेतरः । का. प्र. १०.१७२ विना किञ्चिदन्यस्य सदसत्त्वाभावो विनोक्तिः । अ. स. ३१ विनोक्तिश्चेद् विना किञ्चित् प्रस्तुतं हीनमुच्यते । च. ५.५६ एकेन विना किञ्चिद्यत्रान्यत् स्यात् सतोऽसतो यद्वा । ए. ८.२२ विना संबन्धि यत् किचिद्यत्रान्यस्य पराभवेत् । अरम्यता रम्यता वा सा विनोक्तिरिति स्मृता ॥ प्र. य. ४०२ विनोक्तिर्यद् विनान्येन न साध्वन्यदसाधु वा । सा. १०.५५ विनोक्तिश्चेद् विना किञ्चित्प्रस्तुतं हीनमुच्यते । कु. २२.५६ तच्चेत् किंचिद् विना रम्यं विनोक्तिः सापि कथ्यते । चि. ६० विनोक्तिः सा विनैकेनान्यस्य चेत् सदसत्कृतिः । अ. कौ. ८.२७६ यत्रान्येन विनान्योऽसाधुः सन्वा विनोक्तिः सा । अ-कौ. ४२

<headword>विभावना</headword>

विभावना Vibhāvanā : Uncommon Causation :

vi bhāvanā (√ bhū anat ā) literally means conception, discussion, investigation, ascertainment or discrimination. When the effects ( kārya) are represented as taking place even at the absence of their usual causes (kāraṇa), it is rhetorically known as Vibhāvanā. Logically a cause is the immediate antecedent of its effect and, therefore, an effect cannot arise without its proper cause. But in case of poetic statement, even in the absence of the real cause, its effect may be seen due to poet's imagination. Practically speaking the poet is very much conscious of the matter-of-fact relation of cause and effect, but his imaginative faculty inspires him to express an extraordinary idea through such device by which he tries to emphasise some particular idea in this uncommon way which we try to explain through a special rhetorical analysis.

According to Bhāmaha and Ruyyaka, in the process of Vibhāvanā, the result of the effect is perceived after the prohibition of the effect. Bhoja thinks that the usual cause is denied here but another uncommon or insignificant cause may be represented. Here the name Vibhāvanā is very significant since the effect even without its particular cause, is seen to be appearing. But in process of such causation though based on contrast, we find some unusual cause (due to the absence of the real cause); therefore, it is not actual contrast (virodha). Ruyyaka observes that such figurative speech is generally based on some hyperbolic statement.

Two main varieties of Vibhāvāna have been recognised: (i) one based on natural cause and (ii) the other based on uncommon cause.

eg 1. anāyāsa-kṛśaṃ madhyam/ aśaṅka-tarale dṛśau. abhūṣaṇa-manohāri / vapur vayasi subhruvaḥ. अनायासकृशं मध्यमशङ्कतरले दृशौ । अभूषण-मनोहारि वपुर्वयसि सुभ्रुवः ॥ Her waist is thin without any labour, Eyes fickle without any cause of fear, And her frame attractive without decoration, In tender age shines the fair-eyed maiden. 2. anadhyayana-vidvāṃso / nirdravya-parameśvarāḥ. analaṃkāra-subhagāḥ / pāntu yuṣmāñ jineśvarāḥ. अनध्ययन-विद्वांसो / निर्द्रव्य-परमेश्वराः । अनलंकारसुभगाः / पान्तु युष्माञ् जिनेश्वराः ॥ Philosophers without the aid of any studies, Great lords without having any properties, Without any decorations handsome and fortunate -Such Jinas, the divine masters, may you all protect.

Definitions

हेतुं विना वितततां प्राप्ता सा तु विभावना । वि. १४.१० प्रसिद्धहेतुव्यावृत्त्या यत्किञ्चित्कारणान्तरम् । यत्र स्वाभाविकत्वं वा विभाव्यं सा विभावना ॥ का. २.१६६; अ. ३४४.२७ क्रियायाः प्रतिषेधे या तत्फलस्य विभावना। ज्ञेया विभावनैवासौ समाधौ सुलभे सति ॥ भा. का. २.७७ अ. सं. २.१६ क्रियाप्रतिषेधे प्रसिद्धतत्फलव्यक्तिर्विभावना ॥ का सू. ४.३.१३ सेयं विभावनाख्या यस्यामुपलभ्यमानमभिधेयम् । अभिधीयते यतः स्यात्तत्कारणमन्तरेणैव ॥ यस्यां तथा विकारस्तत्कारणमन्तरेण सुव्यक्तः । प्रभवति वस्तुविशेषे विभावना सेयमन्या तु ॥ यस्य यथात्वं लोके प्रसिद्धमर्थस्य विद्यते तस्मात् ॥ अन्यस्यापि यथात्वं यस्यामुच्येत सान्येयम् ॥ रु. का. ६.१६, १८, २० स्वकारणपरित्यागपूर्वकं कान्तिपुष्टये । भावनार्थस्य केनापि विशेषेण विभावना ॥ व. ३.५७ प्रसिद्धहेतुव्यावृत्त्या यत्किञ्चित्कारणान्तरम् । यत्र स्वाभाविकं वापि विभाव्यं सा विभावना ॥ स. ३.६ प्रसिद्धहेतुत्यागेन हेत्वन्तरविभावनम् । यत्र स्वाभाविकत्वं वा विभाव्यं सा विभावना । शृ. १० क्रियायाः प्रतिषेधेऽपि फलव्यक्तिर्विभावना । का. प्र. १०.१६२ कारणाभावे कार्यस्योत्पत्तिर्विभावना । अ. स. ४२ विना कारणसद्भावं यत्र कार्यस्य दर्शनं । नैसर्गिकगुणोत्कर्षभावनात् सा विभावना ॥ वा. ४.६७ विभावना विनापि स्यात् कारणं कार्यजन्म चेत् । च. ५.७५ असति प्रसिद्धहेतौ कार्योत्पत्तिर्विभावना भवति। ए. ८.३६ कारणेन विना कार्यस्योत्पत्तिर्विभावना । प्र. य. ४२३ विभावना विना हेतुं कार्योत्पत्तिर्यदुच्यते । सा. १०.६६ कारणाभावेऽपि कार्योपक्षेपो विभावना । अ. शे. ४४ विभावना विनापि स्यात्कारणं कार्यजन्म चेत् । कु. ३४.७७ हेतुरूपक्रियाभावेऽपि फलं यत् स्याद्विभावना। अ. कौ. ८.२७१ कारणव्यतिरेकसामानाधिकरण्येन प्रतिपद्यमाना कार्योत्पत्तिर्विभावना । र. २ हेतुं विनापि कार्यं यत्रोक्तं स्याद्विभावना। अ-को. ३७

<headword>विरोध</headword>

विरोधः Virodhaḥ : Contradiction:

The word virodha (vi √rudh a <ghañ) literally means contradiction inconsistency, anti-thesis, contrast, opposing etc. Virodha, otherwise called Virodhābhāsa, is a rhetorical figure which implies some apparent incongruity between two opposite objects. Therefore, it gives an apparent inconsistency between the basic features of objects like genus (jāti), attribute (guṇa) action (kriyā) or object (dravya). Such contradiction is purely a literary fancy and therefore, apparent, but not real or logical. That is why it is otherwise known as Virodhābhāsa. Due to poetic craftmanship such contradiction brings an additional charm to the expression of the poet. The Viṣṇudharmottara Purāṇa says that any action (kriyā) producing a result uncommon to it is Virodha. Bhoja says that the figures like Viṣama, Asangāti, Adhika and Pratyanīka are basically different varieties of Virodha. Even if Virodha has been differentiated from those figures by some rhetoricians, it bears close resemblance to them. Both Bibhāvanā and Viśeṣokti also show apparent contradiction like that of Virodha but still the nature of contradiction in Virodha appears to be the widest of all. The former two figures cause opposition by violating the relation of cause-andeffect only. The figure Rūpaka (Metaphor) may appear identical with the present figure (for example mukha-candra or the face totally identical to the moon) but fundamentally it is different from Virodha since Rūpaka brings total identity through non-difference between two closely similar objects, while Virodha brings a different kind of poetic charm through contradiction.

The quality of contradiction in Virodha may be classified into two broad divisions: (i) equal (ie contradiction between two objects belonging to the same class) or (ii) unequal (contradiction between two objects of different classes). These twofold varieties may be either paronomastic or nonparonomastic. These varieties may again be subdivided into some other classes.

eg 1. kathaṃ mugdhe kathaṃ vakre / kāntāyās te vilocane. kathaṃ janānurāgāya / kathaṃ jana-vipattaye. कथं मुग्धे कथं वक्रे / कान्तायास्ते विलोचने । कथं जनानुरागाय / कथं जन-विपत्तये ॥ How is it with this beautiful maid -Those eyes are charming but crooked! How is it that they generate love in man And how is it that they cause affliction!

This figure bears close similarity with English Antithesis, Paradox and Oxymoron. eg Love is a madness mixed with sanity, Hope mixed with fear, and faith with perfidity, Health that is sick, hunger that's satiate, Sweet mixed with bitter, peace that's mixed with hate, Bad virtue, evil good, leisure with haste, A tasty odour and a tasteless taste.

Definitions

या क्रिया चान्यफलदा विरोधस्तु स इष्यते. वि. १४.१३ विरुद्धानां पदार्थानां यत्र संसर्गदर्शनम् । विरोधदर्शनायैव स विरोधः स्मृतः ... ॥ का. २.३३३ गुणस्य वा क्रियाया वा विरुद्धान्यक्रियावचः । यद्विशेषाभिधानाय विरोधं तं प्रचक्षते ॥ भा. का. ३.२५ अ. सं. ५.६ विरुद्धाभासत्वं विरोधः । का. सू. ४.३.१२ यस्मिन् द्रव्यादीनां परस्परं सर्वथा विरुद्धानाम् । एकत्रावस्थानं समकालं भवति स विरोधः ॥ रु.का. ६.३० स इति विरोधाभासो यस्मिन्नर्थद्वयं पृथग्भूतम् । अन्यद् वाक्यं गमयेद्विरुद्धं सद्विरुद्धमिव ॥ रु. का. २०.२२ सङ्गतिकरणं युक्तया यदसंगच्छमानयोः । विरोधपूर्वकत्वेन तद्विरोध इति स्मृतम् ॥ अ. ३४४.२८ विरोधो यो विरुद्धार्थवाचिनां संगतिं पुनः । समर्पयन्नुल्लिखति प्रतीतेर्युक्तियुक्तताम् ॥ व. ७.५० विरोधस्तु पदार्थानां परस्परमसङ्गतिः । असङ्गतिः प्रत्यनीकमधिकं विषमश्च सः ॥ स. ३.२४ पदार्थानां परस्परानुगतिर्विरोधः । श्रृ. १० विरोधः सोऽविरोधेऽपि विरुद्धत्वेन यद्वचः । का. प्र. १०.१६६ विरुद्धाभासत्वं विरोधः । अ. स. ४१ आपाते हि विरुद्धत्वं यत्र वाक्ये न तत्त्वतः । शब्दार्थकृतमाभाति स विरोधः स्मृतो यथा ॥ वा. ४.२२१ अर्थानां विरोधाभासो विरोधः । हे. का. ६.१२ विरोधोऽनुपपत्तिश्चेद् गुणद्रव्यक्रियादिषु । च. ५, ७२ श्लेषादिभूर्विरोधश्चेद्विरोधाभासता मता। च. ५.७३ स्फुरति विरोधाभासे भवति विरोधाभिधो दशधा ए. ३३ आभासत्वे विरोधस्य विरोधालंकृतिर्मता । प्र. य. ४१६ जातिश्चतुभिर्जात्याद्यैर्गुणो गुणादिभिस्त्रिभिः । क्रिया क्रियाद्रव्याभ्यां यद् द्रव्यं द्रव्येण वा मिथः । विरुद्धमिव भासते विरोधोऽसौ दशाकृतिः ॥ सा. १०.६७-६६ आभासत्वे विरोधस्य विरोधाभास इष्यते । कु. ३३.७६ विरोधः स विरोधाभासः । अ. कौ. ८.२७५ अविरोधेऽपि विरोधप्रतीतिर्विरोधः । का. ३ विरोधिता प्रसिद्धं वैरं सहावस्थानञ्च । एकाधिकरणसंबद्धत्वेन प्रतिपादितयोरर्थयोर्भासमानैकाधिकरणासंबद्धत्वमेकाधिकरणासंवद्धत्वभानं वा विरोधः । र. २ अविरोधेऽपि विरोधो यत्रोक्तः स्याद् द्विरोधः सः । अ-कौ. ३६

<headword>विशेष</headword>

विशेषः  Viśeṣaḥ : Distinction :

The word vi śeṣa literally means excellence, distinction, discrimination, difference or distinguishing feature. In Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika philosophy, viśeṣa is one of the seven principal categories (like universal element, quality, action, genus etc.) and speculated as the eternal distinguishing principle of each of the nine elements) such as earth, water, light, wind, ether, time, space, soul and mind ). As a figure of speech Viśeṣa signifies its distinction by presenting the contained one in spite of the absence of its proper container. When something, absent in its proper location, is being represented as present simultaneously in many other locations, it is styled as Viśeṣa. Here the poet's statement signifies a kind of distinction or qualitative difference in more than one way: (i) something dependent on any other thing is prescribed or represented or enjoined as existing without it, (ii) one particular thing represented as being present in its original nature in many other things simultaneously, (iii) somebody while engaged in doing something represented as accomplishing something which is unlikely of him.

eg gṛhiṇī sacivaḥ sakhī mithaḥ priyaśiṣyā lalite kalāvidhau. karuṇā-vimukhena mṛtyunā haratā tvāṃ vada kiṃ na me hṛtam. गृहिणी सचिवः सखी मिथः प्रियशिष्या ललिते कलाविधौ । करुणाविमुखेन मृत्युना हरता त्वां वद किं न मे हृतम् ॥ She was my mistress, my counsellor, companion, In lessons of fine arts, my dearest devotee, By pityless Death snatched as she is -What has not been robbed off, Oh! tell me.

In the verse, Kālidāsa expresses how the king, at the sudden death of his beloved queen, laments thus focussing her distinct virtues in different stages of his life.

Definitions

किंचिदवश्याभिधेयं यस्मिन्नभिधीयते निराधारम् । तादृगुपलभ्यमानं विज्ञेयोऽसौ विशेष इति ॥ यत्रैकमनेकस्मिन्नाधारे वस्तुविद्यमानतया । युगपदभिधीयतेऽसावत्रान्यः स्याद्विशेष इति ॥ यत्रान्यत्कुर्वाणो युगपत्कार्यान्तरं च कुर्वीत । कर्तुमशक्यं कर्ता विज्ञेयोऽसौ विशेषोऽन्यः ॥ रु. का. ६.५, ७, ६ विना प्रसिद्धमाधारमाधेयस्य व्यवस्थितिः । एकात्मा युगपद् वृत्तिरेकस्यानेकगोचरा ॥ अन्यत् प्रकुर्वतः कार्यमशक्यस्यान्यवस्तुनः । तथैव करणं चेति विशेषस्त्रिविधः स्मृतः ॥ का. प्र. १०.२०३ अनाधारमाधेयमनेकगोचरमशक्यवस्त्वन्तरकरणं विशेषः । अ. स. ५१ विशेषः ख्यातमाधारं विनाप्याधेयवर्णनम्। च. ५.८३ आधेयमनधिकरणं युगपद्यद्येकमप्यनेकत्र । यदसंभावितवस्त्वन्तरकरणं च त्रिधा विशेषोऽसौ ॥ ए. ८.३६, ४१ आधाररहिताधेयमेकं चानेकगोचरम् । अशेषवस्तुकरणं विशेषालंकृतिस्त्रिधा ॥ प्र. य. ४२० यदाधेयमनाधारमेकं चानेकगोचरम् । किञ्चित्प्रकुर्वतः कार्यमशक्यस्येतरस्य वा ॥ कार्यस्य कारणं दैवाद्विशेषस्त्रिविधस्ततः । सा. १०.७३-७४ प्रसिद्धाधारं विनाप्याधेयावस्थानं विशेषः । वा. का. ४४.६६ विशेषः ख्यातमाधारं विनाप्याधेयवर्णनम् । विशेषः सोऽपि यद्येकं वस्त्वनेकत्र वर्ण्यते । कु. ४४.६६, १०० आधारस्य युगपद्युक्तिरनेकस्य स्वरूपतः ॥ एकस्यैवातिचित्रस्य वस्तुनः करणेन हि । तत्सामान्यवस्तूनां करणं स भवेत्रिधा ॥ विशेषः । अ. कौ. ८.३१२ प्रसिद्धमाश्रयं विनाऽधेयं वर्ण्यमाणमेको विशेषप्रकारः । यच्चैकमाधेयं परिमितयत्किञ्चिदाधारगतमपि युगपदनेकाधारगततया वर्ण्यते सोऽपरो विशेषप्रकारः । यच्च किंचित्कार्यमारभमाणस्यासंभावितशक्यवस्त्वन्तर-निवर्तनं स तृतीयो विशेषप्रकारः । र. २१ २२

<headword>विशेषोक्ति</headword>

विशेषोक्तिः Viśeṣoktiḥ: Peculiar Allegation:

Viśeṣokti means any uncommon, extra-ordinary or distinct statement, statement of individualisation or mention of a difference or distinction. This figure of speech shows an interesting record of its development. According to Daṇḍin, when attributes, genus or actions (guṇa, jāti or kriyā) of things appear as ineffective as a cause and that is due to the fact that it exhibits something special or uncommon, it is known as Viśeṣokti.

The Viṣṇudharmottara Purāṇa has defined this figure in a very wide sense. According to it, this alaṃkāra signifies a very special kind of artistic expression made in order to highlight something specially. Vāmana explains that the figure exhibits a kind of close resemblance with the only exception of allowing explicitly the absence or disqualification of one quality. To be more clear, the excellence of a thing is implicitly stated here by comparing it to a valued object, yet mentioning some extra-ordinary difference, and the special difference mentioned in such expressions means absence of only one quality in one of the things. But Ruyyaka considers it as just the opposite of Vibhāvanā and the later scholars except Bhoja have followed the same line. According to them, Viśeṣokti simply means non-appearane of effect even though there is a cause for it.

Logically cause is the immediate antecedent of the effect, and, therefore, where there is a cause, there must be an effect following the cause. But in the poet's world, this rule may not apply, and, in spite of a cause the effect may not appear because there must have been some extra-ordinary reason for which normal appearance of the effect is hindered. This is, in brief, the basic idea of Viśeṣokti. But Bhoja's definition is different from the previous one. Viśeṣokti, according to him, is a statement of excellence with excess or paucity. Vāmana's definition is quite different from those of his predecessors and followers. Ruyyaka and Jagannātha observed that Vāmana's Viśeṣokti is identical with Rūpaka (Metaphor).

Viśeṣokti occurs in three ways: (i) when the cause is explicitly stated, (ii) when the cause is not explicitly stated and (iii) when the cause seems impossible to be conceived.

But Daṇḍin gives a separate group of its four varieties : (i) ineffectiveness of attribute (guṇa-vaikalya), (ii) ineffectiveness of genus or distinguishing properties (jāti-vaikalya), (iii) ineffectiveness of action (kriyā-vaikalya) and (iv) ineffectiveness of specific objects (dravya-vaikalya).

eg 1. dyūtaṃ hi nāma puruṣasya asiṃhāsanaṃ rājyam. द्यूतं हि नाम पुरुषस्य असिंहासनं राज्यम् The game of dice, to a gambler, is really a kingdom without the throne. 2. yaḥ kaumāra-haraḥ sa eva hi varastā eva caitra-kṣapās te conmīlita-mālati-surabhayaḥ prauḍhāḥ kadambānilāḥ, sā caivāsmi tathāpi tatra surata-vyāpāra-līlāvidhau revā-rodhasi vetasa-tarutale cetaḥ samutkaṇṭhate. यः कौमारहरः स एव हि वरस्ता एव चैत्रक्षपास् ते चोन्मीलित-मालति-सुरभयः प्रौढाः कदम्बानिलाः । सा चैवास्मि तथापि तत्र सुरतव्यापारलीलाविधौ रेवारोधसि वेतसतरुतले चेतः समुत्कण्ठते ॥ The same he who stole my maidenhood is my husband, Just the same are the nights of spring, Same old breezes fragrant by pollens of mālati blowing from kadamba trees; I too the same. Still by Revā-narrows beneath the cane Oh! for the game love phantasis Wistful wistful grows the heart.

In the second example the beloved lady expresses her astonishment because she asserts that all the causes (such as the presence of the same lover, nights of spring, scented breeze etc.) for arousing intense love between them (ie the present lady and her husband) are very much apparent, but still she does not experience any such romantic feeling which she enjoyed with the same man (as her lover but not her husband). She has rather a strange feeling because she strongly desires the experience of such romantic love enjoyed during her pre-marital rendezvous.

Definitions

विशेषप्रथनाद् (विशेषप्रापणाद् ) उक्ता विशेषोक्तिस्तथा नृप । वि. १४.२१ गुणजातिक्रियादीनां यत्तु वैकल्यदर्शनम् । विशेषदर्शनायैव सा विशेषोक्तिरिष्यते ॥ का. २.३२३; अ. ३४४.६६ यत्सामग्र्येऽपि शक्तीनां फलानुत्पत्तिबन्धनम् । एकदेशस्य विगमे या गुणान्तरसंस्थितिः । विशेषप्रथनायासौ विशेषोक्तिर्मता यथा ॥ भा. का. २.३३ विशेषस्याभिधित्सातस्तद्विशेषोक्तिरुच्यते ॥ अ. सं ५.४ एकगुणहानिकल्पनायां साम्यादार्ढ्यं विशेषोक्तिः । का. सू. ४.३.२३ गुणजातिक्रियादीनां यत्र वेकल्यदर्शनम् । विशेषदर्शनायैव सा विशेषोक्तिरिष्यते ॥ स. ४.७० विशेषोक्तिरखण्डेषु कारणेषु फलावचः । का. प्र. १०.१६३ कारणसामग्र्ये कार्यानुपपत्तिर्विशेषोक्तिः । अ. स. ४३ विशेषोक्तिरनुत्पत्तिः कार्यस्य सति कारणे । च. ५.७६ यदि कारणसाकल्ये कार्यसिद्धिस्तदा विशेषोक्तिः । ए. ८.३६ तत्सामग्र्यामनुत्पत्तिर्विशेषोक्तिर्निगद्यते । प्र. य. ४२३ सति हेतौ फलाभावे विशेषोक्तिस्तथा द्विधा । सा. १०.६७ कारणे सत्यपि कार्याभावो विशेषोक्तिः । अ. शे. ४.४ कार्याजनिर्विशेषोक्तिः सति पुष्कलकारणे । कु. ३५.८३ विशेषोक्तिः कारणेषु सत्सुकार्यस्य नोदयः । अ. कौ. ८.२७२ प्रसिद्धकारणकलापसामानाधिकरण्येन वर्ण्यमाणा कार्यानुत्पत्तिर्विशेषोक्तिः । र. २ हेतौ सत्यपि कार्यानुत्पत्तिः स्याद् विशेषोक्तिः । अ-कौ. ३७

<headword>विषम</headword>

विषमः Viṣamaḥ: Incompatibility :

Viṣama (vi sama) literally means unequal, rough, irregular, odd, inaccessible, adverse, unfavourable, unusual, incompatible etc. As a figure of speech Viṣama occurs when the actions or qualities coming in the form of effect produced by the relevant cause appear mutually contradictory to each other. Simply it is a kind of unusual or incompatible relation between cause and effect.

In the physical world, cause and effect are closely related, and one type of cause produces the same kind of effect, and, as a rule, there is no exception to it. But in the poet's world there might be some incongruity apparently formed by fancy. According to Rudraṭa, the figure Viṣama should be included in the list of figures based on factual statement (vāstava-mūla). Actually Viṣama is based on contrast expressed in hyperbolic statement (atiśaya ). Most of the rhetoricians while dealing with Viṣama simply give its characteristic features instead of giving its actual definition. Mammaṭa observes that the desired result of the action undertaken or accomplished by someone does not benefit the doer concerned, rather some undesired result is produced instead.

Jagannātha and others have listed three varieties of Viṣama : (i) firstly the desired result is unattained, (ii) secondly one's efforts not only fail to produce the effective result but also produce some unwarranted result and (iii) thirdly some undesired effect is simply produced.

eg 1. ānandamamandam idaṃ kuvalaya-dala-locane dadāsi tvam. virahas tvayaiva janitas tāpayatitarāṃ śarīraṃ me. आनन्दममन्दमिदं कुवलयदललोचने ददासि त्वम् । विरहस्त्वयैव जनितस्तापयतितरां शरीरं मे ॥ O my lady love, with lotus like eyes, Thou givest such unending bliss, And it's thou that produceth separation Which afflicts my body more and more in pain.

In this example the sweet heart is represented as the cause of delight to her lover through her presence, but afterwards, the same person becomes the cause of all affliction through her absence. Therefore, the same type of cause gives different types of effects sometimes desirable and sometimes undesirable as well as contradictory.

Definitions

विषम इति प्रथितोऽसो वक्ता विघटयति कमपि संबन्धम् । यत्रार्थयोरसन्तं परमतमाशङ्कय तत्सत्त्वे ॥ अभिधीयते सतो वा संबन्धस्यार्थयोरनौचित्यम् । यत्र स विषमोऽन्योऽयं यत्रासंभाव्यभावो वा ॥ यत्र क्रियाविपत्तेर्न भवेदेव क्रियाफलं तावत् । कर्तुरनर्थश्च भवेत्तदपरमभिधीयते विषमम् ॥ रु. का. ७.४७, ४९, ५४ कार्यस्य कारणस्य च यत्र विरोधः परस्परं गुणयोः । तद्वत्क्रिययोरथवा संजायेतेति तद्विषमम् ॥ रु. का. ६.४५ क्वचिद्यदतिवैधर्म्यन्न श्लेषो घटनामियात् । कर्तुः क्रियाफलाव्याप्सिर्नैवानर्थश्च यद्भवेत् । गुणक्रियाभ्यां कार्यस्य कारणस्य गुणक्रिये । क्रमेण च विरुद्धे यत् स एष विषमो मतः ॥ का. प्र. १०.१९४ विरूपकार्यानर्थयोरुत्पत्तिर्विरूपसंघटना च विषमम् । अ. स. ४९ वस्तुनो यत्र सम्बन्धमनौचित्येन केनचित् । असंभाव्यं वदेद् वक्ता तमाहुर्विषमं यथा ॥ वा. ४.११७ क्रियाफलाभावोऽनर्थश्च विषमम् । हे. का. ६.२३ विषमं यद्यनौचित्यादनेकान्वयकल्पनम् । च. ५.७८ विषमं विरूपघटना विसदृशकार्यानभीष्टयोर्जननम् । ए. ८.३८ विरुद्धकार्यस्योत्पत्तिर्यत्रानर्थस्य वा भवेत् । विरुपघटना चासौ विषमालंकृतिस्त्रिधा ॥ प्र. य. ८.१६५ गुणौ क्रिये वा चेत् स्यातां विरुद्धे हेतुकार्ययोः । यदारब्धस्य वैफल्यमनर्थस्य च सम्भवः । विरुद्धयोः संघटना या च तद्विषमं मतम् ॥ सा. १०.७० असंभावितसंबन्धः कार्याभावेऽनर्थश्च विषमम् । वा. का. ३ विषमं वर्ण्यते यत्र घटनाननुरूपयोः । विरुपकार्यस्योत्पत्तिरपरं विषमं मतम् । कु. ३८.८८, ८९ गुणक्रियाभ्यां ते एव कार्यकारणयोश्च यत् । परस्परं विरुध्येते विषमः ...॥ अ. कौ ८.३९३ अनुरूपसंसर्गो विषमम् । र. २ संबन्धानुपपत्ताविशिष्टार्थानाप्त्यनिष्टसंप्राप्तौ । जन्यजनकोभयगुणक्रियाविरोधे च विषमः स्यात् ॥ अ-कौ. ५४

<headword>विषाद</headword>

विषादः Viṣādaḥ : Frustration :

The word viṣāda (vi √sad a < ghañ) primarily means dejection, disapointment, grief, frustration, despair etc. The figure Viṣāda, otherwise called Viṣādana, is rhetorically a kind of expression that highlights the attainment of just the opposite of the desired object without any endeavour. This alaṃkāra is a late discovery and recognised by Appayya and Jagannatha only. Jagannātha criticises the view of those who want to include Viṣāda in Viṣama and opines that Viṣāda is to be found outside the case of Viṣama though some instances of the former might not be different from the latter. He also says that in some cases there might be partly Viṣama and partly Viṣāda.

eg 1. rātrir gamiṣyati bhaviṣyati suprabhātam bhāsvānudeṣyati hasiṣyati paṃkajaśrīḥ itthaṃ vicintayati kośagate dvirephe hā hanta hanta nalinīṃ gaja ujjahāraḥ. रात्रिर्गमिष्यति भविष्यति सुप्रभातम् भास्वानुदेष्यति हसिष्यति पंकजश्रीः । इत्थं विचिन्तयति कोशगते द्विरेफे हा हन्त हन्त नलिनीं गज उज्जहारः ॥ Night will pass away, dawn will file, The sun will rise, beauty of the lotuses will smile -Thinking thus the bee waited inside the lotus While the elephant ate it up, Oh alas!

Definitions

इष्यमाणविरुद्धार्थसम्प्राप्तिस्तु विषादनम् । च. ५४८ इष्यमाणविरुद्धार्थप्राप्तिस्तु विषादनम् । कु. ६८.१३२ अभीष्टार्थविरुद्धलाभो विषादनम् । र. २

<headword>व्यतिरेक</headword>

व्यतिरेकः Vyatirekaḥ : Dissimilitude :

The word vyatireka (vi ati √ric a < ghañ) denotes contrast, difference or distinction. As a figure of speech Vyatireka brings the idea of contrast or dissimilitude of similar objects compared to each other in some respect. Here the contrast lies in the fact that the object of comparison (ie upameya) is represented as superior or inferior to the standard of comparison (ie upamāna).

The cause of such excellence or deficiency of the subject in hand may be explicitly stated by words of comparison (like iva, yathā) or expressed by sense through words of similitude. (like tulya, samāna, saṃkāśa)

Here the superiority of one or inferiority of the other may be clearly expressed or suggested through the application of one quality or qualities or by some opposite quality or qualities. In such figurative statement, excellence or deficiency is not factual but purely based on poetic fancy.

According to Daṇḍin, plain contrast or dissimilitude between two objects is the basic concept of this alaṃkāra. Bhāmaha called it viśeṣa-nidarśana or exhibition of some special distinction. Bhoja also says that some sort of difference between two similar objects is poetically represented here. Therefore, we can say that Vyatireka is based on the idea of non-resemblance of two similar objects and the idea is brought through some special contrasting feature expressed in a very charming way.

Here the poet gives prominence to the object of descripiton-(i) either by declaring its superiority, (ii)or by declaring the inferiority of the standard of comparison, (iii) or by both the features, (iv) or by suggesting any of the two.

Vyatireka expresses not only contrast between the two but signifies some sort of similitude also, which is always implied. Now the question remains whether the contrast is highlighted through the idea of excellence of one or degradation of the other. Experts giving opinion in this respect may be divided in two groups : Vāmana finds here the superiority of the upameya and he is supported by Mammaṭa and others who characterise it as excess of the upameya, while others like Udbhaṭa, Jagannātha, Appayya maintain the predominance of any of the two. Still there are others who try to establish here either superiority or inferiority of either the subject of comparison or the standard of comparison.

Numerous varieties of this figure may be as follows: (a) two main varieties based on equal or unequal qualities, (b) four varieties--based on particular word/words, sense, expressed by words denoting similitude (like iva) and based on paronomasia. eg 1. akalaṃkaṃ mukhaṃ tasyā na kalaṃkī vidhur yathā. अकलंकं मुखं तस्या न कलंकी विधुर्यथा । Spotless shines her face Unlike the moon with black spot for disgrace.

2. kṣīṇaḥ kṣīṇoʼpi śaśī bhūyo bhūyo vivardhate satyam. virama prasīda sundari yauvanam anivarti yātaṃ tu. क्षीणः क्षीणोऽपि शशी भूयो भूयो विवर्धते सत्यम् । विरम प्रसीद सुन्दरि यौवनमनिवर्ति यातं तु ॥ Though the moon turns thinner and thinner Truly indeed it developes brighter and brigther; So stop, be pleased, O sweet maiden, Youth, if gone, is not to return again.

In the first example, a contrast between the face and the moon has been explicitly stated by declaring the inferiority of the moon (ie the standard of comparison or upamāna) through the mention of its black spots which are not to be found in the spotless face.

In the second sentence, a comparison between the moon and youth is implied. But youth has been held glamourous than the moon because of its transitory nature. The moon passes through web and wane as it is seen <flag>is</flag> the sky, but the period of youth for the human being is fickle, and therefore, it is more valuable because youthful enjoyments are always transitory.

Definitions

गुणानां व्यतिरेकेण व्यतिरेकमुदाहृतम् । वि. १४.५ उपमानविरुद्धैश्च गुणैस्तदपरं मतम् । शब्दोपात्ते प्रतीते वा सादृश्ये वस्तुनोर्द्वयोः । तत्र यद्भेदकथनं व्यतिरेकः स कथ्यते ॥ का. २.१८० उपमानवतोऽर्थस्य यद् विशेषनिदर्शनम् । व्यतिरेकं तमिच्छन्ति विशेषापादानाद् यथा ॥ भा. का. २.७५ विशेषापादानं यत्स्यादुपमानोपमेययोः। निमित्तादृष्टिदृष्टिभ्यां व्यतिरेको... ॥ यो वैधर्म्येण दृष्टान्तो यथेवादिसमन्वितः । व्यतिरेकोऽत्र सोऽपीष्टो विशेषोपादनान्वयात् ॥ अ. सं. २ उपमेयस्य गुणातिरेकित्वं व्यतिरेकः । का. सू. ४.३.२२ यो गुण उपमेये स्यात्तत्प्रतिपन्थी च दोष उपमाने । व्यस्तसमस्तन्यस्तौ तौ व्यतिरेकं त्रिधा कुरुतः ॥ यो गुण उपमाने वा तत्प्रतिपन्थी च दोष उपमेये । भवतो यत्र समस्तौ स व्यतिरेकोऽयमन्यस्तु ॥ रु. का. ८६-८७ सति तच्छब्दवाच्यत्वे धर्मसाम्येऽन्यथास्थितेः । व्यतिरेचनमन्यस्मात् प्रस्तुतोत्कर्षसिद्धये । शाब्दः प्रतीयमानो वा व्यतिरेकोऽभिधीयते ॥ व ३.४८ शब्दोपात्ते प्रतीते वा सादृश्ये वस्तुनोर्द्वयोः । भेदाभिधानं भेदश्च व्यतिरेकश्च कथ्यते ॥ स. ३.३२ सदृशयोर्भेदकथनं व्यतिरेकः । श्रृ. १० उपमानाद्यदन्यस्य व्यतिरेकः स एव सः । का. प्र. १०.१५९ भेदप्राधान्ये उपमानादुपमेयस्याधिक्ये विपर्यये वा व्यतिरेकः । अ. स. २९ केनचिद् यत्र धर्मेण द्वयोः संसिद्धसाम्ययोः भवत्येकतराधिक्यं व्यतिरेकः स उच्यते ॥ वा. ४.८४ उत्कर्षापकर्षकत्वहेत्वोः साम्यस्य चोक्तावनुक्तौ चोपमेयस्याधिक्यं व्यतिरेकः । हे. का. ६.१८ व्यतिरेको विशेषश्चेदुपमानोपमेययोः । च. ५.५७ उपमानादुपमेयं यत्राधिक्यस्य गोचरीभवति । सति भेदप्राधान्ये व्यतिरोकोऽयं समाख्यातः । ए.८.२० भेदप्रधानसाधर्म्यमुपमानोपमेययोः । अधिक्याल्पत्वकथनाद् व्यतिरेकः स उच्यते ॥ प्र. य. ४३५ आधिक्यमुपमेयस्य उपमानान्न्यूनताऽथवा । व्यतिरेकः । सा. १०.५३ साम्यस्य भेदकारणस्य चोक्तौ यद् द्वयोर्भेदकारणं स व्यतिरेकः । वा. का. ३ व्यतिरेको विलक्षण उपमानात् । अ. कौ. ८.२३८ उपमानादुपमेयस्य गुणविशेषत्वेनोत्कर्षो व्यतिरेकः । र. २ उभयोः साम्यप्रोक्तौ विशेष उपमेयगो व्यतिरेकः । अ-कौ. ३४

<headword>व्याजस्तुति</headword>

व्याजस्तुतिः Vyājastutiḥ : Sarcasm :

vyāja means pretext, pretence, semblance, trick, art or cunningness and stuti denotes praise, eulogy, commendation or laudation. Therefore, Vyājastuti means artful praise or false eulogy. As a figure of speech it expresses praise or censure conveyed by explicit statement that signifies the contrary in meaning. So Vyājastuti is a kind of figurative expression of either praise in the form of explicit blame or the vice versa. Here explicit condemnation turns into implicit commendation or just the reverse. So censure is implied through apparent praise or contrarily praise is implied through apparent censure. Therefore, the figure may be called Vyājastuti or Vyājanindā.

eg 1. upakṛtam bahu tatra kimucyate sujunatā prathitā bhavatām param. vidadhadīdṛśameva sadā sakhe sukhitāmāsva śaradāṃ śatam. उपकृतं बहु तत्र किमुच्यते / सुजनता प्रथिता भवतां परम् । विदधदीदृशमेव सदा सखे / सुखितामास्व शरदां शतम् ॥ A lot of help you have rendered, and not to mention ! A good samaritan you are--is well-known. O friend, for others doing all this May you live hundred years with bliss.

Here the evil conduct of the person concerned has been reversely stated and thus censure is implied through apparent commendation. So the entire meaning is to be taken in the opposite sense.

Definitions

स्तुतिरूपेण या निन्दा निन्दास्तुतिरिहोच्यते ॥ निन्दास्तुतिस्तथैवोक्ता निन्दारूपेण या स्तुतिः । वि. १४।१३-१४ यदि निन्दन्निव स्तौति व्याजस्तुतिरसौ स्मृता ॥ का. २।३४३ दोषा भासा गुणा एव लभन्ते यत्र संनिधिम् । दूराधिकगुणस्तोत्रव्यपदेशेन तुल्यताम् । किञ्चिद्विधित्सोर्या निन्दा व्याजस्तुतिरसौ यथा ॥ भा. का. ३ ।३१ शब्दशक्तिस्वभावेन यत्र निन्देव गम्यते । वस्तुतस्तु स्मृतिश्चेष्टा व्याजस्तुतिरसौ यथा ॥ अ. सं ५ सम्भाव्यविशिष्टकर्माकरणान्निन्दास्तोत्रार्था  व्याजस्तुतिः । का. सू. ४।३।२४ यत्र वाच्यतया निन्दा विच्छित्त्यै प्रस्तुतस्य सा । स्तुतिर्व्यङ्गतया चैव व्याजस्तुतिरसौ मता ॥ व ३।२८ दोषस्य यो गुणीभावो दोषीभावो गुणस्य यः । स लेशः स्यात्ततो नान्या व्याजस्तुतिरपीष्यते ॥ स. ४।५६ व्याजस्तुतिर्मुखे निन्दा स्तुतिर्वा रुढिरन्यथा । का.प्र. १०।१६९ स्तुतिनिन्दाभ्यां निन्दास्तुत्योर्गम्यत्वे व्याजस्तुतिः । अ. स. ३८ स्तुतिनिन्दयोरन्यपरता व्याजस्तुतिः । हे. का. ६ । १६ उक्तिर्व्याजस्तुतिर्निन्दास्तुतिभ्यां स्तुतिनिन्दयोः ॥ च. ५।६९; कु. ३०।७० यत्र प्रक्रान्तायां स्तुतौ कथञ्चित् प्रतीयते निन्दा । निन्दायां स्तुतिरथवा सेयं व्याजस्तुतिर्द्विविधा ॥ ए. ८।३० निन्दया वाच्यया यत्र स्तुतिरेवावगम्यते । स्तुत्या वा गम्यते निन्दा व्याजस्तुतिरसौ मता ॥ प्र.य. ४४३ उक्ता व्याजस्तुतिः पुनः निन्दास्तुतिभ्यां वाच्याभ्यां गम्यत्वे स्तुतिनिन्दयोः । सा. १०।५९ स्तुतौ निन्दा निन्दायां स्तुतिर्यत्र पर्यवसीयते सा व्याजस्तुतिः । वा. का. ३ मुखे स्तुति निन्दा वा हृदये व्याजस्तुतिः स्यात्तत्तदन्यथा । अ. कौ ८।२७७ आमुखप्रतीताभ्यां निन्दास्तुतिभ्यां स्तुतिनिन्दयोः क्रमेण पर्यवसानं व्याजस्तुतिः । र. २ व्याजस्तुतिर्विपर्ययपर्यवसानेऽस्तुतिस्तुत्योः । अ. कौ. ४१

<headword>व्याघात</headword> व्याघातः Vyāghātaḥ : Frustration :

The word vyāghāta (vi ā √han ghañ) literally means obstruction, hindrance, impediment, interruption etc. In rhetoric, the figure Vyāghāta technically means expression of something accomplished by someone when it becomes undone or frustrated by another in the same way. It is called Vyāghāta since it expresses some sort of obstruction towards the accomplishment of a work which has been performed or is readily going to be performed. Ruyyaka mentions another variety of this figure where any particular or the same reason destined to accomplish an action is supported or corroborated as producing the opposite effect. According to him, Vyāghāta is based on Vyatireka (Dissimilitude) without which it is not possible.

Vyāghāta is different from Viṣama because in the former something to be accomplished becomes frustrated, while in the latter, the operation is not only frustrated but also suffers from some sort of mishap.

eg 1. dṛśā dagdhaṃ manasijaṃ jīvayanti dṛśaiva yāḥ. virūpākṣasya jayinīstāḥ stumo vāmalocanāḥ. दृशा दग्धं मनसिजं जीवयन्ति दृशैव याः विरूपाक्षस्य जयिनीस्ताः स्तुमो वामलोचनाः ॥ Cupid, that was burnt by eyes, Becomes alive again by the glances of women, Who are winners against Lord Mahadeva-We glorify such fair-eyed beauties. Definitions

अन्यैरप्रतिहतमपि कारणमुत्पादनं न कार्यस्य । यस्मिन्नभिधीयते व्याघातः स इति विज्ञेयः ॥ रु. का. ९.५२ यद्यथा साधितं केनाप्यपरेण तदन्यथा । तथैव यद्विधीयते स व्याघात इति स्मृतः ॥ का. प्र. १०.२०३ यथासाधितस्य तथैवान्यथाकरणं व्याघातः । अ. स. ५२ स्याद् व्याघातोऽन्यथाकारि वस्त्वन्यक्रियमुच्यते । च. ५.८४ किञ्चित्केनापि यथा विहितं तद्वस्तु तत्ततोऽन्येन । क्रियतेऽन्यथा तथैव व्याघातोऽयं समाख्यातः ॥ ए. ८.४२ येन यत्साधितं वस्तु तेनैव क्रियतेऽन्यथा । अन्येन तदलंकारो व्याघात इति कथ्यते ॥ प्र. य. ८.२५५ व्याघातः स तु केनापि वस्तु येन यथाकृतम् । तेनैव चेदुपायेन कुरुतेऽन्यस्तदन्यथा । सौकर्येण च कार्यस्य विरुद्धं क्रियते यदि । सा. १०.७४-७५ एकेन कृतकार्यमपरेण तथैवान्यथा विधीयते स व्याघातः । वा. का. ३ स्याद्वाघातोऽन्यथाकारि तथाकारि क्रियेत चेत् । कु. ४५.१०२ सौकर्येन निबद्धापि क्रिया कार्यविरोधिनी । यद्वस्तु साधितं येन करणेन तदन्यथा । तेनैव यदि तस्य स्यात्तदा व्याघात इष्यते ॥ अ. कौ. ८.३२५

यत्र ह्येकेन कर्त्रा येन कारणेन कार्यं किञ्चिन्निष्पादितं निष्पिपादयिषितं वा तदन्येन कर्त्रा तेनैव कारणेन तद्विरुद्धकार्यस्य निष्पादनेन निष्पिपादयिषया वा व्याहन्येत स व्याघातः । र. १

कार्यान्तरहेतुतयान्येनाभिमताद्विरुद्धकार्यं चेत् । क्रियते परेण तस्माद् व्याघातोऽयं समाख्यातः । अ-कौ. ६३

<headword>व्याजोक्ति</headword>

व्याजोक्तिः Vyājoktiḥ : Innuendo :

vyāja ukti means a deceitful or pretended statement. As a figure of speech it is a statement made in such a way as to hide or deny something artfully which is otherwise clear or exposed by any means. Udbhaṭa and his commentator treat Vyājokti as a variety of Apahnuti (Concealment), but Mammaṭa and his followers accept it as a separate figure.

Mammaṭa says that Apahnuti shows some kind of resemblance between two similar objects represented as the referent and the non-referent, but, according to him, Vyājokti does not conceive such resemblance. Besides this, in Apahnuti, the object of comparison (upameya) is denied and the standard of comparison (upamāna) is established in place of upameya, while Vyājokti establishes concealment of something through an artistic expression. According to Viśvanātha, the subject of description (ie prastuta) in Vyājokti is not explicitly mentioned and some other thing similar to it in any way is superimposed in it. Here the intended sense though concealed cunningly can be connoted or suggested. In short, Apahnuti is real concealment, but Vyājokti is pretended concealment. Mammaṭa says that the figures recognised as Yukti or Mithyādhyavasiti should be included in Vyājokti.

Three important elements are to be found in this figure : (a) concealment of the intended object or thing, (b) exposition of such concealment by some pretext and (c) exposition of a false cause by denying the actual cause.

eg 1. aho śaityasya mahimā / himānila tavedṛśaḥ, na śakyate gopāyituṃ / kṛto yenādhara-vraṇaḥ. अहो शैत्यस्य महिमा / हिमानिल तवेदृशः । न शक्यते गोपायितुं / कृतो येनाधरव्रणः ॥ O northern breeze, such indeed is your power of chill That chaps on my lips, caused by it, I cannot conceal.

Here in this example, the young lady wants to conceal the marks of biting on her lips by her lover on the pretext that she sarcastically praises the chilly breeze which , according to her statement, has caused such chaps.

Definitions

व्याजस्य सत्यसारूप्यं व्याजोक्तिः । का. सू. ४.३.२५ व्याजोक्तिश्छद्मनोद्भिन्नवस्तुरूपनिगूहतम् । का. प्र. १०.१८४ उद्भिन्नवस्तुनिगूहनं व्याजोक्तिः । अ. स. ७७ व्याजोक्तिः शंकमानस्य छद्मना वस्तुगोपनम् । च. ५.१०५ यत्रोद्भिन्नं किंचिद्वस्तु कुतश्चिन्निगूह्यते भूयः । वस्त्वन्तरनिक्षेपाद् व्याजोक्तिं तामुशान्त्येताम् ॥ ए. ८.७० व्याजोक्तिः सा समुद्भूतं वस्तु यत्र निगूह्यते । प्र. य. ४१२ व्याजोक्तिर्गोपनं व्याजादुद्भिन्नस्यापि वस्तुनः । सा. १०.१२ उद्भूतवस्तुनश्छद्मना निगूहनं व्याजोक्तिः । वा. का. ३ पिहितं परवृत्तान्ताज्ञातुः साकूतचेष्टितम् । कु. ८६.१५३ प्रकृतस्थगनं छद्म व्याजेक्तिरनिषेधभाक् । अ. कौ. ८.२९२ व्याजोक्तिर्विशदीभवदर्णस्यापह्नुतिर्मिषतः । अ-कौ. ४७

<headword>श्रुति</headword> श्रुतिः Śrutiḥ : Literary Device :

The word śrutiḥ (√śru ti<ktin) means something heard from others. It is one of the most uncommon figures recognised by Bhoja only. The designation has been used here in a very wide sense and the varieties of this figure as given by Bhoja indicate that a wide range of literary devices accepted by the poets in different forms of literary works (such as drama, epic, prose-romance) has been included in it. Śruti is sixfold : (i) āśḥ (blessing, benediction etc), (ii) nāndī (benediction or propitiation of gods and honourable personalities), (iii) vastu-nirdeśa (indication of the subject-matter or theme), (iv) namaskriyā (expression of devotion or obedience), (v) dhruvā (special kind of music used in a drama), (vi) ākṣiptikā (special reference or indication).

eg 1. vāgarthāviva sampṛktau vāgartha-pratipattaye. jagataḥ pitarau vande pārvatī-parameśvarau. वागर्थाविव सम्पृक्तौ वागर्थप्रतिपत्तये । जगतः पितरौ वन्दे पार्वती-परमेश्वरौ ॥ For the comprehension of sound and sense I salute Pārvatī and Parameśvara, in coupling, The divine parents of the universe-United as word and meaning.

It is the introductory verse of Kālidāsa's epic Kumārasambhava. Here the poet expresses his profound regards to Pārvatī and Parameśvara, the divine pair (ie Lord Śiva and His consort Pārvatī). <headword>श्लेष</headword>

श्लेषः  Śleṣaḥ : Pun or Double Entendre :

√śliṣ a> ghañ = śleṣa literally means combination, juction, union, embrace, clinging etc. As a figure of speech Śleṣa occurs where some word or sentence yields two (or sometimes more than two) meanings through denotation and not by implication or suggestion. It depends on the duplicity of sense under the unity of sound and works as a play upon word or meaning. Normally a pun gives two meanings, but sometimes a successful pun can denote as many as six or seven meanings (as we find it exhibited in some poems composed by postKalidasan epic poets). Śleṣa works upon the similarity of sound of words whether in inflected or non-inflected position. The words though similar in sound differ in meaning and give rise to Śleṣa.

Śleṣa or Pun is one of the oldest figures in language and very popular among all classes of poets. In spite of its extensive use as a very effective device of literary expression some rhetors in Sanskrit left it untouched while some others did not define verbal pun but illustrated what is ideal Śleṣa. Daṇḍin eulogised it as the most successful poetic device that adds beauty to all types of Vakrokti or Artful Statement. There is a dispute among rhetoricians whether Śleṣa is purely a figure of sound or sense (ie scheme or trope) or both sound and sense. Divisions of Śleṣa : Two main divisions are-(i) Pun based on sound (śabda-śleṣa), (ii) Pun based on sense (artha-śleṣa), Another principal division is : (iii) Pun based on both word and meaning (ubhaya-śleṣa) The first variety may be again twofold: (a) unbreakable (ie punning in the complete word) and (b) breakable (a paronomastic word which can be reconstructed into two or more words having pun separately).

This śabda-śleṣa or a word having two or more meanings is not capable of allowing any change for a synonymous word. But in case of artha-śleṣa substitution with a synonymous word is possible. Rudraṭa admits eightfold varieties of Śleṣa-based on syllable, on word, on gender, on nominal base, on suffix, on prefix, on number, and on declensional and conjugational terminations. He has also given another class of Śleṣa : (a) Pun based on meaning, (b) based on contrast (virodha-śleṣa), (c) based on excess (adhika-śleṣa), (d) based on twisted meaning (vakra-śleṣa), (e) based on pretended meaning (vyāja-śleṣa), (f) Pun in conversation (ukti-śleṣa), (g) based on improbablity (asambhava-śleṣa), (h) partial pun (avayava-śleṣa), (i) Pun for a significant idea (tattva-śleṣa).

Bhoja has mentioned another group of pun with sixfold varieties: based on a particular word, on a sentence, on similarity, on contrast, on case-endings and on conjugational endings.

Here it should be noted that Sanskrit language is very synthetic in character due to its grammatical structure, and at the same time very flexible in syntactical structure. Therefore, punning through play upon words is comparatively easier. In vocabulary, it is perhaps the reachest of all classical languages.

The tradition of a very rich heritage of figurative literature has been rigouroussly followed by the writers of poetry and prose both. Prose-writers like Bāṇa, Subandhu and others have exhibited their masterly skill by linguistic and semantic play upon words through alliteration, assonance, pun as well as a good number of tropes. In late early and mediaeval period of Sanskrit literature a special type of poetic composition called śleṣa-kāvyas, or even epic poems with double or more meanings in every verse) was cultivated for the exhibition of poet's skill in punning.

eg 1. sarvasvaṃ hara sarvasya / tvaṃ bhava-cchedatatpara nayopakāra-sāmmukhyam / āyāsi tanuvarttanam. सर्वस्वं हर सर्वस्य / त्वं भव च्छेदतत्पर । नयोपकारसाम्मुख्यमायासि तनुवर्त्तनम् ॥ This verse is applicable to (i) Lord Śiva and (ii) to a thief. (i) A devotee appeals to Śiva thus: O Hara, you are the ultimate goal of of all, O Bhava, you make an end to rebirth; In order to teach ethical virtues You assume various forms. (ii) The mother of a thief speaks to her son thus: Steal everything from everybody, Be an expert in burglary, By diligence keep your body fit So that you become a master thief.

Definitions

द्वित्र्यर्थवाचकैः शब्दैः श्लेष इत्यभिधीयते । वि. १४.६ श्लिष्टमिष्टमनेकार्थमेकरूपान्वितं वचः । का. २. ३१० उपमानेन यत्तत्त्वमुपमेयस्य साध्यते । गुणक्रियाभ्यां नाम्ना च श्लिष्टं तदभिधीयते ॥ भा. का. ४.९ एकप्रयत्नोच्चार्याणां तच्छायां चैव बिभ्रताम् । स्वरितादिगुणैर्भिन्नैर्बन्धः श्लिष्टमिहोच्यते ॥ अ. सं. ४ सधर्मेषु तन्त्रप्रयोगे श्लेषः। का. सू. ४.३.७ वक्तुं समर्थमर्थं सुश्लिष्टाक्लिष्टविविधपदसंधि । युगपदनेकं वाक्यं यत्र विधीयते स श्लेषः ॥ रु. का. ४.१ एकरूपेण वाक्येन द्वयोर्भणनमर्थयोः । तन्त्रेण यत्स शब्दैः श्लेष इत्यभिशब्दितः । स. २६.८ श्लेषोऽनेकार्थकथनं पदेनैकेन कथ्यते । स ४.८४ एकपदेनानेकार्थाभिधानं श्लेषः । श्रृ. १० वाच्यभेदेन भिन्ना यत् युगपद्भाषणस्पृशः । श्लिष्यन्ति शब्दाः श्लेषोऽसौ ॥ का. प्र. ९.११९. विशेष्यस्यापि साम्ये द्वयोर्वोपादाने श्लेषः । अ. स. ३४ पदैस्तैरेव भिन्नैर्वा वाक्यं वक्त्येकमेव हि । अनेकमर्थं यत्रासौ श्लेष इत्युच्यते यथा ॥ वा. ४.१२९ अर्थभेदभिन्नानां शब्दानां भङ्गाभङ्गाभ्यां युगपदुक्तिः श्लेषः । हे. का. ५.५ श्लिष्टैः पदैरनेकार्थाभिधाने श्लेष इष्यते । सा. १० शब्दैः स्वभावादेकार्थैः श्लेषोऽनेकार्थवाचनम् ॥ सा. द. १०.५७ एकेनानेकार्थस्य युगपदुक्तिः श्लेषः । वा. का. ४ एकोच्चारणापह्नुतभेदत्वं श्लेष । अ. शे. ४.१

<headword>संसृष्टि संकर</headword>

संसृष्टिः संकरः Saṃsṛṣṭiḥ: Saṃkaraḥ : Conjunction of figures :

Though it is very difficult to make a successful anatomy of poetic diction still rhetoricians and critics always try to explore the linguistic as well as artistic qualities and deficiencies of poetry. Some Sanskrit rhetoricians are in the habit of searching and analysing all poetic expression through the concept of alaṃkāra. Therefore, it is quite possible that any such expression may contain two or more figures. In the heritage of classical language, Sanskrit is conspicuously analytico-sythetic due to its phonetic and morphological features and for this reason we find here innumerable varieties of alliterative and paronomastic pattern in poetry and prose too.

Conjuction and commixture of two or more figures are known as Saṃsṛṣṭi Saṃkara respectively. These two terms (sam √sṛj ktin and sam √kṛ ach) literally mean union, combination, association, mixture, amalgam etc. Such combination happens in two ways : (i) by independent relation (saṃyoga) and (ii) by dependent relation (samavāya)

Combination or co-existence of two or more figures in a single sentence through independent relationship is known as Saṃsṛṣṭi. Such union is compared to the combination of tila-taṇḍula (ie mixture of sesamen and rice) or ādarśa-chāyā (ie mirror and its reflection). According to Kuntaka Saṃsṛṣṭi happens with the syntax of a sentence where various words are separately associated and have separate importance of their own, but ultimately appear as a complete unity and express a combined sense. Here the difference between the figures is prominent and the amalgam happens in three ways: in an explicit way, in an implicit way and in both ways. Saṃsṛṣṭi is threefold: (i) Combination of the figures of sound, (ii) Combination of the figures of sense, (iii) Combination of both

Saṃkara is a commixture of two or more figures having a relation of principal and subordinate status. Here we find one figure co-existing with another while giving itself a secondary position. But in such case, one alaṃkāra is not getting prominence over the other but both of them become mutually acceptable. According to Mammaṭa another variety of Saṃkara occures where several alaṃkāras co-exist in one verse or passage but they are not interdependent and, moreover, one of them may be preferably acknowledged but none can be accepted with certainty at the cost of the other. The mutual relation of figures is here compared to the mixture of milk-and-water (kṣīra-nīra).

Older rhetoricians do not approve separate entity of these two but recognise them as a single alaṃkāra. Śobhākara does not admit either Saṃsṛṣṭi or Saṃkara as a separate figure and argues that in many places figures of sound and sense both exist together. In case of figures like Rasavat, other figures are sure to occur since in all sorts of poetic expression there must be some human sentiment or feeling. Therefore, Śobhākara maintains that no alaṃkāra can exist singularly and some figures (like Anuprāsa and Yamaka, Rūpaka and Śleṣa) are found unitedly. But Viśvanātha rejects such a view and tries to establish that conjuction or commixture of figures produces a special kind of poetic charm in many cases, which cannot be produced by any single figure.

eg 1. Conjuction of Utprekṣā and Upamā : limpatīva tamoʼṅgāni / varṣatīvāñjataṃ nabhaḥ. asat-puruṣa-seveva / dṛṣṭir viphalatāṃ gatā. लिम्पतीव तमोऽङ्गानि / वर्षतीवाञ्जतं नभः । असत्पुरुषसेवेव / दृष्टिर्विफलतां गता ॥ Darkness is coating the limbs, as if, The sky is downpouring collyrium, as if, Like servitude unto the undignified master Eye-sight comes in vain for the on-looker. 2. Commixture of Vibhāvanā and Viśeṣokti : yaḥ kaumāraharaḥ sa eva hi varas tā eva caitra-kṣapās te conmīlita-mālatī-surabhayaḥ prauḍhāḥ kadambānilāḥ. sā caivāsmi tathāpi tatra surata-vyāpāra-līlāvidhau revārodhasi vetasa-tarutale cetaḥ samutkaṇṭhate. यः कौमारहरः स एव हि वरस्ता एव चैत्रक्षपास् ते चोन्मीलित-मालतीसुरभयः प्रौढाः कदम्बानिलाः । सा चैवास्मि तथापि तत्र सुरतव्यापारलीलाविधौ रेवारोधसि वेतसतरुतले चेतः समुत्कण्ठते ॥ The same he who stole my maidenhood is my husband, Just the same are the nights of spring, Same old breezes fragrant by pollens of mālati blowing from kadamba trees; I too the same, Still by Revā-narrows beneath the cane Oh! for the game love phantasies Wistful wistful grows the heart.

In the second example the beloved lady expresses her astonishment because she asserts that all the causes (such as the presence of the same lover, nights of spring, scented breeze etc.) for arousing intense love between them (ie the present lady and her husband) are very much apparent, but still she does not experience any such romantic feeling which she enjoyed with the same man (as her lover but not her husband). She has rather a strange feeling because she strongly desires the experience of such romantic love enjoyed during her pre-marital rendezvous.

Definitions

नानालंकारसंसृष्टे संसृष्टिस्तु निगद्यते। का. २.३५९ वराभिभूषा संसृष्टिर्बह्वलंकारयोगतः । रचिता रत्नमालेव सा चैवमुदाहृता यथा ॥ भा. का. ४९ अलंकृतीनां बह्वीनां द्वयोर्वापि समाश्रयः । एकस्य निरपेक्षानां मिथः संसृष्टिरुच्यते ॥ अ. सं. ६.९ अलंकारस्यालंकारयोनित्वं संसृष्टिः । का. सू. ४.३.३० संसृष्टिरिति विज्ञेया सर्वालंकारसंकरः । तिलतण्डुलवद् व्यक्ता छायादर्शवदेव च ॥ अव्यक्ता क्षीरजलवत् पांशुपानीयवच्च सा । व्यक्ताव्यक्ता च संसृष्टिर्नरसिंहवदिष्यते । चित्रवर्णवदन्यस्मिन् नानालंकारसंकरे ॥ स. ४.८७-८९ राजन्ति यत्रालंकारा अन्योन्यान्वितवृत्तयः । यथा पदार्था वाक्यार्थे संसृष्टिः साभिधीयते ॥ व. ३.६० सेष्टा संसृष्टिरेतेषां भेदेन यदिह स्थितिः ॥ का. प्रा. १०.२०३ एषां तिलतण्डुलन्यायेन मिश्रत्वं संसृष्टिः । अ. स. ८४ एषां तिलतण्डुलवन्मिश्रत्वेनाभ्यधायि संसृष्टिः। ए. ७६ तिलतण्डुलसंश्लेषन्यायाद् यत्र परस्परम् । संश्लिष्येयुरलंकाराः सा संसृष्टिर्निगद्यते ॥ प्र. य. ४७२ मिथोनपक्षमेतेषां स्थितिः संसृष्टिरुच्यते । सा. १०.९८ संसृष्टिरप्यसौ क्रियाशब्दार्थोभयभूः सा । अ. कौ. ८.३१५ संसृष्टिस्तु परस्परमनपेक्ष्यस्थितिरनेकस्य । अ-कौ. ६४ नानालंकारसंसृष्टिः संकीर्णं तु निगद्यते । इत्यलंकारसंसृष्टेर्लक्षणीया द्वयी गतिः ॥ का. २.३५९-६० शब्दार्थवर्त्यलंकारा वाक्य एकत्र भासिनः । संकरो वा ॥ अ. सं. ५.१० योगवशादेतेषां तिलतण्डुलवच्च दुग्धजलवच्च । व्यक्ताव्यक्तांशत्वाच्च संकर उपपद्यते द्वेधा ॥ रु. का. १०.२५ अलंकारकलापोऽयमन्यैः संकीर्णतां गतः । स्फुरन्ननेकधा वाक्ये संकर सोऽभिधीयते ॥ व ३.६१ अविश्रान्तिजुषामात्मन्यङ्गाङ्गित्वं तु संकरः । का. प्र. १०.२०९ क्षीरनीरन्यायेन तु संकरः । अ. स. ८७ स्वातन्त्र्याङ्गत्वसंशयैकपद्यैरेषामेकत्र स्थितिः संकरः । हे. का. ६.३१ कथितस्तु संकरोऽयं त्रिविध यः क्षीरनीरवद्भवति ॥ ए. ८.७६ क्षीरनीरनयाद्यत्र संवन्धः स्यात् परस्परम् । अलंकृतीनामेतासां संकरः स उदाहृतः ॥ प्र. य. अङ्गाङ्गित्वेऽलंकृतीनां तद्वदेकाश्रयस्थितौ । संदिग्धत्वे च भवति संकरस्त्रिविधः पुनः ॥ सा. १०.९८

स्वातन्त्र्येणाङ्गत्वेन संशयेनैकपद्येन वा अलंकाराणामेकात्रावस्थानं संकरः । वा. का. ३

संकरस्त्वङ्गाङ्गिभावः बहूनां वा द्वयोश्च वा सहावस्थानबाधेन भवेन्नो वेत्यनिश्चये संकरोऽनिश्चयाख्यः स्यात् ... ॥ एकत्र विषये व्यक्तमुभयालंकृतिर्यदि तदापरः संकरः स्यादिति विविध एव सः ॥ अ-कौ. ३१७-३१९ एकमपेक्ष्यान्यस्य प्रादुर्भावे तु संकरः प्रोक्तः ॥ साधकबाधकमानाभावाच्चैकस्य निर्णयाभावे । एकपदाच्छब्दार्थालंकृत्योरवगन्तव्यः ॥ अ-कौ. ६४-६५

<headword>सम</headword>

समम्  Samam : Equal :

Sama (otherwise called Sāmya) is just the opposite of Viṣama (unequal). As a figure of speech Sama implies some sort of connection or link between two things which are mutually equal due to their fitness. Here fitness signifies that the things likened together are either equally good or bad. This figure may also be a case of Upamā (Simile) or Rūpaka (Metaphor), but such a statement as we find in Sama bears a special charm of its own due to cleverness of the poetic expression, and therefore, it is separately recognised as a different alaṃkāra.

Most of the rhetoricians admit that Sama is the expression of union of two equal things which bear similarity due to their mutual status. But Vāgbhaṭa, on the contrary, defines Sama as a link between worthy and unworthy things due to their mutual <flag>propriety</flag>. Bhoja remarks that in Sāmya similitude between two different things is revealed due to cleverness of statement and such cleverness or dexterity comes through various ways, namely (i) resemblance of the two, (ii) superiority of either of the two, (iii) inferiority of either of the two, (iv) both resemblance and superiority of the two. eg 1.tad vaktraṃ yadi mudritā śaśikathā taccet smitaṃ kā sudhā. taccakṣur yadi hāritaṃ kuvalayais tāś ced giro dhiṅmadhu. dhik kandarpa-dhanur bhruvau ca yadi te kiṃ vā bahu brūmahe tat satyaṃ punar-ukta-vastu-vimu khaḥ sargakramo vedhasaḥ. तद्वक्त्रं यदि मुद्रिता शशिकथा तच्चेत् स्मितं का सुधा तच्चक्षुर्यदि हारितं कुवलयैस्ताश्चेद् गिरो धिङ्मधु । धिक् कन्दर्पधनुर्भ्रुवौ च यदि ते किं वा बहु ब्रूमहे तत् सत्यं पुनरुक्तवस्तुविमुखः सर्गक्रमो वेधसः ॥ If it is her face, talk about the moon is set afar, If it is her smile, what is the use of nectar? If it is her eyes, blue lotuses are defeated, If it is her voice, honey is to be pitied, If it is her eye-brows, fie on the bow of cupid. Or what else can be spoken! True indeed--to produce similar things Is opposed to God's creation.

This verse describes the feminine beauties of the heroine--her lovely face, eyes, eye-brows and sweet voice. Here similitue between similar things (like the face and the moon, eyes and lotuses, voice and honey) is cleverly suggested.

Definitions

सर्वालंकारं यस्मिन्नुभयोरभिधातुमन्यथा साम्यम् । उपमेयोत्कर्षकरं कुर्वीत विशेषमन्यत्तु तत् ॥ अथ क्रियया यस्मिन्नुपमानस्यैति साम्यमुपमेयम् । तत्सामान्यगुणादिककारणतया तद् भवेत् साम्यम् । ८.१०५-१०६ द्वयोर्ययोक्तिचातुर्यादौपम्यार्थोऽवगम्यते । उपमारूपकान्यत्वे साम्यमित्यामनन्ति तत् ॥ स. ४.३० समं योग्यतया योगो यदि संभावितः क्वचित् । का. प्र. १०.१९३ तद् (विषम)-विपर्ययः समम् । अ. स. ४७ योग्यताया योगो समम् । हे. का. २७ सममौचित्यतोऽनेकवस्तुसंवर्णनम् । च. ५.७९ अस्य (विषमस्य) प्रथममभिधाया सममिति कविभिर्विपर्यये कथितम् । ए. ८.७२ सा समालंकृतिर्योगो वस्तुनोरनुरूपयोः । प्र. य. ४२७ समं स्यादानुरूप्येण श्लाघा योगस्य वस्तुनः । सा. १० औचित्येनोत्कृष्टापकृष्टायोर्योगः समम् । वा. का. ७ । समं स्याद् वर्णनं यत्र द्वयोरप्यनुरूपयोः । सारूप्यमपि कार्यस्य कारणेन समं विदुः ॥ कु. ३९.९१-९२ श्लाघ्यत्वेन भवेद् योग्यो यदि योगस्तदा समम् । अ. कौ. ८.७३२ अनुरूपसंसर्गः समम् । र. २। अन्योन्यसंगमार्हौ संबध्येते समं तत् स्यात् । अ-कौ. ५३ <headword>समाधि</headword>

समाधिः  Samādhiḥ : Felicitation :

Samādhi (sam ā √dhā ki) is otherwise called Samāhitā (sam ā √dhā ta < kta). As a figure Samādhi denotes well accomplishment of something. When an act scheduled to be accomplished by the doer through proper means is accidentally accomplished by another through some other suitable expedient, the figure is called Samādhi. In such rhetorical statement, the common cause for the operation does not come as a help, but some other uncertain cause happens to accomplish the desired action by chance without the help or desire of any effort from the part of the doer. In Samādhi, we find the ascription of one's property upon another or through poetic imagery one's property is superimposed on the other.

eg 1. mānam asyā nirākartuṃ / pādayor me patiṣyataḥ upakārāya diṣṭyedam / udīrṇaṃ ghanagarjitam. मानमस्या निराकर्तुं / पादयोर्मे पतिष्यतः । उपकाराय दिष्ट्येदम् / उदीर्णं घनगर्जितम् ॥ In order to remove her anger As I knelt down on her feet Then it was for my favour That the rumbling clouds began to thunder.

Definitions

किञ्चिदारभमाणस्य कार्यं दैववशात् पुनः । तत्साधनसमापत्तिर्या तदाहुः समाहितम् ॥ का. २.२९८ रसभावतदाभासवृत्तैः प्रशमबन्धनम् । अन्यानुभावनिःशून्यरूपं यत्तत्सामहितम् । अ. सं १४ यत्सादृश्यं तत्सम्पत्तिः समाहितम् । का. सू. ४.३.२९ कार्यारम्भे सहायाप्तिर्दैवादैवकृतेह या । आकस्मिकी बुद्धिपूर्वोभयी वा तत् समाहितम् ॥ स. ३.३४ कारणान्तरसम्पत्तिर्दैवादारम्भ एव हि । यत्र कार्यस्य जायते तज्जायेत समाहितम् ॥ वा. ४.११० कार्यमारभमाणस्य दैवादुपायसंपत्तिः समाहितम् । वा. का. ३ आरब्धानुकूलाऽकस्मिकसहकारिलाभः समाहितम् । अ. शे. ४.४ अन्यधर्मस्ततोऽन्यत्र लोकसीमानुरोधिना सम्यगाधीयते यत्र स समाधिरिह स्मृतः ॥ अ. ३४५.१३ समाधिमन्यधर्माणमन्यत्रारोपणं विदुः । निरुद्भेदोऽथ सोद्भेदः स द्विधा परिपठ्यते । स. ४.४४ अन्यधर्माणामन्यत्रारोपणं समाधिः । श्रृ. १० समाधिः सुकरं कार्यं कारणान्तरयोगतः । का. प्र. १०.१९३ कारणान्तरयोगात् कार्यस्य सुकरत्वं समाधिः । अ. स. ९८ समाधिः कार्यसौकर्यं कारणान्तरसन्निधेः । च. ५.९८ हेत्वन्तरसंबन्धात् स्फूर्जति कार्यस्य यत्र सौकुमार्यम् । स समुच्चयसादृश्यात् समाधिर्नामात्र निर्दिष्टः। ए. ८.५९ एकस्मिन् कारणे कार्यसाधनेऽन्यत् परापतेत् । काकतालीयनियतः स समाधिरुदीर्यते । प्र. य. ४५९ समाधिः सुकरे कार्ये दैवाद् वस्त्वनुपागमात् । सा. १०.८५ समाधिः कार्यसौकर्यं कारणान्तरसन्निधेः । कु. ५७.११८ कारणान्तरसाहाय्यात् कार्यं यत् सुकरं भवेत् । <flag>कतुर्विना</flag> प्रयत्नेन समाधिरितीर्यते । अ. कौ. ८.३०१ एककारणजन्यस्य कार्यस्याकस्मिककारणान्तसमवधानाहितसौकर्यं समाधिः । र. २ भवति समाधिः सुकरे हेत्वन्तरसमवधानतः कार्ये । अ. कौ. ५३

<headword>समासोक्ति</headword>

समासोक्तिः Samāsoktiḥ: Condensed Metaphor :

samāsa is conciseness or brevity and ukti is expression or statement. The term samāsokti literally means speech of brevity or concise irony or protracted metaphor. As a figure it is close to English Personification or Personal Metaphor. Rhetorically it is Samāsokti when the behaviour of one (ie its action or quality ) is poetically ascribed to the other. Here the subject of discussion (ie the prākaraṇika or the contextual subject matter, otherwise called prakṛta or the referent) is fancifully made to behave in such a manner that becomes really befitting to another due to the features of its actions, qualities, gender etc. Here the real subject-matter (ie the upameya) is less important and, on the other hand, the non-contextual (ie the upamāna) becomes prominent. Here the upamāna is not directly expressed, but the behaviour of the upameya is ascribed to it. In Samāsokti, similitude between two becomes prominent by brevity of expression. Here the relation between the contextual and the non-contextual is either explicitly stated or implied. In the first case, statement is based on paronomastic phrases connecting both of them, but in the second case, either of them becomes prominent. In Samāsokti, the aprastuta or non-contextual becomes prominent, but in Aprastuta-praśaṃsā, the real subject-matter becomes prominent.

Kuntaka is not ready to accept Samāsokti as a separate figure of speech and, therefore, rejects it on the ground that any such rhetorical statement bears no poetic charm at all. He also says that in all cases of Samāsokti as illustrated by rhetoricians some other figure (either Śleṣa (Paronomasia) or Rūpaka (Metaphor) or Aprastutapraśaṃsā (Indirect Reference) lies inherent. Viśvanātha has raised all the objections given by Kuntaka and strongly rejects Kuntaka's plea against this alaṃkāra and establishes its position firmly. He explains that Samāsokti is recognised in three ways: (i) similarity of action (kriyā), (ii) similarity of gender (linga) and (iii) similarity of attributes expressed through adjectival phrases. Again the last variety occurs in three ways: (a) by the use of paronomastic words, (b) by plain (ie non-paronomastic) words and (c) by similitude

The relation of mutual similitude (as found in the c-type) happens either through Simile or Metaphor or conjunction of both of them. In the b-type, there may be partial metaphor.

Though sometimes based on Rūpaka, Samāsokti fundamentally differes from it. In Rūpaka, the subject of discussion (ie prastuta) becomes totally enveloped by the aprastuta or non-contextual while in Samāsokti only the behaviour of one is attributed on the other. In Paronomasia and Implied Simile, resemblance between two similar objects is either expressed or implied through nominal and adjectival phrases, but in Samāsokti only adjectival (viśeṣaṇa) phrases are used to suggest the relation of similitude. According to Bhoja the figures Ubhaya-nyāsa and Pratīka-nyāsa should be included in Samāsokti. eg 1. anurāgavatī saṃdhyā divasas tatpuraḥsaraḥ. aho daivagatiḥ kīdṛk tathāpi na samāgamaḥ. अनुरागवती संध्या दिवसस्तत्पुरःसरः । अहो दैवगतिः कीदृक् तथापि न समागमः ॥ The twilight lady is tinged in amor While the day-lover comes in front of her; Oh ! how is it--the decree of fate ! Even so the twain do never meet.

Definitions

वस्तु किञ्चिदभिप्रेत्य तत्तुल्यस्यान्यवस्तुनः । उक्तिः संक्षिप्तरूपत्वात् सा समासोक्तिरिष्यते । का. २.२०५ यत्रोक्ते गम्यतेऽन्योऽर्थस्तत्समानविशेषणः । सा समासोक्तिरुद्दिष्टा संक्षिप्तार्थतया यथा ॥ भा. का. २.७९ प्रकृतार्थेन वाक्येन तत्समानैर्विशेषणैः । अप्रस्तुतार्थकथनं समासोक्तिरुदाहृता ॥ अ. सं. २.२१ अनुक्तौ समासोक्तिः । का. सू. ४.३.३ सकलसमानविशेषणमेकं यत्राभिधीयमान सत् । उपमानमेव गमयेदुपमेयं सा समासोक्तिः ॥ रु. का. ८.६७ यत्रोक्तं गम्यते नार्थस्ततसमानविशेषणः । सा समासोक्तिरुदिता संक्षेपार्थतया बुधैः ॥ ३४५.१७ यत्रोपमानादेवैतदुपमेयं प्रतीयते । अतिप्रसिद्धेस्तामाहु समासोक्तिं मनीषिणः ॥ स. ४.४६ उपमानोपमेययोरत्यन्तसिद्धेरुपमानेनैव संक्षेपतोऽभिधानं समासोक्तिः । श्रृ.१० परोक्तिर्भेदकैः श्लिष्टैः समासोक्तिः । का. प्र. १०.१४८ विशेषणानां साम्यादप्रस्तुतस्य गम्यत्वे समासोक्तिः । अ. स. ३१ उच्यते वक्तुमिष्टस्य प्रतीतिजनने क्षमम् । सधर्मं यत्र वस्त्वन्यत् समासोक्तिरियं यथा ॥ वा. ४.९५ श्लिष्टविशेषणैरुपमानधीः समासोक्तिः । हे. का. ९.२४ समासोक्तिः परिस्फूर्तिः प्रस्तुतेऽप्रस्तुतस्य चेत् । च. ५.६० साधारणधर्मवशाद्गम्येनाप्रस्तुनेन चारुत्वम् । प्रस्तुतमुपैति वाच्यं यस्यामेषा समासोक्तिः। ए. ८.२३ विशेषणानां तौल्येन यत्र प्रस्तुतवर्तिनाम् । अप्रस्तुतस्य गम्यत्वे सा समासोक्तिरिष्यते ॥ प्र. य. ४०३ समासोक्तिः समैर्यत्र काव्यलिङ्गविशेषणैः । व्यवहारसमारोपः प्रस्तुतेऽन्यस्य वस्तुनः ॥ सा. १०.५६ उपमेयश्लेषोक्तौ उपमानप्रतीतिः समासोक्तिः । वा. का. ३ अन्यदभिप्रेत्यान्याभिधानं समासोक्तिः । अ. शे. ४.४ समासोक्तिः परिस्फूर्तिः प्रस्तुते प्रस्तुतस्य चेत् । कु. २३.६१ श्लिष्टैर्विशेषणैरेव विशेषस्यान्यथास्थितिः । समासोक्तिः । अ. को. ८.२५१ यत्र प्रस्तुतधर्मिको व्यवहारः साधारणविशेषणमात्रोपस्थापिताप्रस्तुतधर्मिकव्यवहाराभेदेन भासते सः समासोक्तिः । र. २ यत्र प्रकारवाचकपदमात्रं व्यङ्ग्यवाच्यसामान्यम् । तच्छक्तेरप्रकृतार्थोक्तिः सोक्ता समासोक्तिः ॥ अ-को. २८

<headword>समुच्चय</headword>

समुच्चयः Samuccayaḥ : Conjuction :

The word samuccaya (sam uccaya) literally means accumulation, collection, assemblage, aggregate etc. As a figure of speech Samuccaya denotes conjunction of two or more things (through the bond of their qualities or actions or both) which are independent but mutually related with reference to some common property. Therefore, this alaṃkāra is an expression of joining together of some objects through a common idea or some common action at a time. In spite of the presence of one cause sufficient to give rise to one effect there appear other causes producing the same effect. It signifies that there may be found a lot of causes of the same nature, but the effect is one and only one.

It should be noted here that conjunction of a number of things does not produce any poetic charm. But the figure Samuccaya happens only there where the poet gives an artistic representation of an association of objects mutually related by some common idea or action.

Samuccaya is different from similar figures (like Sama, Samādhi and Paryāya) since in this figure there are many causes for one effect and such causes operate jointly and simultaneously, and they produce one and the same effect. Viśvanātha admits six divisions of Samuccaya : (i) mutually related by quality, (ii) mutually related by action, (iii) related by both quality and action, (iv) causes producing a good effect, (v) causes producing a bad effect, (vi) producing both good and bad effects.

eg 1. prādurbhavati payode kajjala-malinaṃ babhūva nabhaḥ raktaṃ ca pathika-hṛdayaṃ kapolapālī mṛgīdṛśaḥ pāṇḍuḥ. प्रादुर्भवति पयोदे कज्जलमलिनं बभूव नभः । रक्तं च पथिकहृदयं कपोलपाली मृगीदृशः पाण्डुः ॥ As the rainy clouds set to appear The sky turned collyrium-smear The heart of the desolate lover purple And the cheeks of the doe-eyed lady pale.

Definitions

यत्रैकत्रानेकं वस्तु परं स्यात्सुखावहाद्येव । ज्ञेयः समुच्चयोऽसो ..... । व्यधिकरणे वा यस्मिन् गुणक्रिये चैककालमेकस्मिन् । उपजायते देशे समुच्चयः स्यात्तदन्योऽसौ ॥ रु. का. ७१९, १७ सोऽयं समुच्चयः स्याद्यत्रानेकोऽर्थ एकसामान्यः । अनिवादिर्द्रव्यादिः सत्युपमानोपमेयत्वे ॥ रु. का. ८.१०३ द्रव्यक्रियागुणादीनां क्रियाद्रव्यगुणादिषु । निवेशनमनेकेषामेकतः स्यात् समुच्चयः ॥ स. ४.६० द्रव्यगुणक्रियाणामेकत्र बहुनामारोपणं समुच्चयोक्तिः । श्रृ ६० तत्सिद्धिहेतावेकस्मिन् यत्रान्यत्तत्करं भवेत् । समुच्चयोऽसौ । स त्वन्यो युगपद् या गुणक्रिययोः । का. प्र. १०, १७९८, १७९ गुणक्रियायौगपद्यं समुच्चयः । अ. स. ६६ हेतौ कार्ये चैकत्र हेतुकार्यान्तरोक्तिर्युगपद्गुणक्रियाश्च समुच्चयः । हे. का. ६.२८ भूयसामेकसंबन्धभाजां गुम्फः समुच्चयः । च. ५. ९३ यद्भवति यौगपद्यं गुणक्रियाणां समुच्चयः स स्यात् । ८.५७ एकेन क्रियमाणं यत्रान्यः स्पर्धयैव तत् कुरुते । सोऽपि समुच्चयभेदः कथितः ... ॥ ए. ८.५८ ॥ विकल्पप्रतिपक्षभूतः समुच्चयो निरूप्यते । गुणक्रियायौगपद्यं समुच्चय उदाहृतः ॥ खलेकपोतन्यायेन बहूनां कार्यसाधने कारणानां समुद्योगः स द्वितीयः समुच्चयः ॥ प्र. य. ४५८-८९ समुच्चयोऽयमेकस्मिन् सति कार्यस्य साधके खलेकपोतिकान्यायात् तत्करः स्यात् परोऽपि चेत् । सा. १०.८४ हेतोर्हेत्वन्तरस्य कार्ये कार्यान्तरस्याभिधानं समुच्चयः । अनेकेषामेकत्र निबन्धनस्त्वन्यः । गुणक्रियायां युगपद्भावभाजां गुम्फः समुच्चयः । कु. ५५.११५ एकस्मिन् यत्र साधके साधकान्तरनिर्देशः स समुच्चयः । अ. को. ८.२८६ युगपत् पदार्थानामन्वयः समुच्चयः । र. २ एकस्मिन् सति हेतौ हेत्वन्तरगीः समुच्चयः कथितः। सदसद्योगे गुणक्रियायोगपद्येऽन्यः ॥ अ. कौ. ४५

<headword>सन्देह</headword>

सन्देहः Sandehaḥ : Doubt :

The word sandeha (sam √diha ghañ) literally means doubt or suspect. As a figure of speech it is an expression of doubtful statement. Here something is poetically suspected to be something else. The subject under consideration is presented as not the subject itself but is doubtfully asserted as a different thing which bears close resemblance to the former. Due to very close resemblance between two objects one is fancifully suspected to be the other. Such doubt is not the common or matter-of fact one but arises only through poet's imagery. This expression of doubt is indirectly meant to glorify the object of description (ie the upameya). Therefore Sandeha (otherwise called Saṃśaya) is an alaṃkāra where the object in hand or the upameya is suspected to be the standard of comparison or the upamāna.

Sandeha is threefold : (i) pure doubt :  Here the statement ends in pure doubt and, therefore, no conclusion can be arrived at finally. (ii) doubt with certainty : Here doubt remains at first, but afterwards such doubt is removed, but even then another kind of doubt crops up. (iii) doubt totally removed by certainty : Here all doubts are ultimately removed and some sort of certainty is finally arrived at.

Daṇḍin does not recognise Sandeha as a separate figure of speech but considers it as a variety of Simile (ie Doubtful Simile or Sandeha upamā)

eg 1. paṃkajaṃ vā sudhāṃ śur vetyasmākaṃ na nirṇayaḥ. पंकजं वा सुधांशुर्वेत्यस्माकं न निर्णयः । Is it (her face) a lotus or the moon-This we cannot ascertain.

eg 2. asyāḥ sarga-vidhau prajāpatir abhūccandro nu kānti-pradaḥ śṛṅgāraika-rasaḥ svayaṃ nu madano māso nu puṣpākaraḥ. अस्याः सर्गविधौ प्रजापतिरभूच्चन्द्रो नु कान्तिप्रदः शृङ्गारैकरसः स्वयं नु मदनो मासो नु पुष्पाकरः ॥ Was it God, the creator, who created her ? Was it moon, the beauty-bestower? Was it Cupid himself, Love incarnate ? Was it the month of spring to rejuvenate?

Definitions

वस्तुनि यत्रैकस्मिन्ननेकविषयस्तु भवति संदेहः । प्रतिपत्तुः सादृश्यादनिश्चयः संशयः स इति ॥ उपमेये सदसंभवि विपरीतं वा तथोपमानोऽपि । यत्र स निश्चयगर्भस्तऽतोपरो निश्चयान्तोऽन्यः ॥ यत्रानेकार्थे संदेहस्त्वेककारकत्वागतः । स्यादेकत्वगतो वा सादृश्यात्संशयः सोऽन्य ॥ रु. का. ८.५९,६१,६५ अर्थयोरतिसादृश्याद् यत्र दोलायते मनः । तमेकानेकविषयं कवयः संशयं विदुः ॥ स. ४.४१ इदमेतदिदं वेति <flag>साम्याद्बुिद्धिर्हि</flag> संशयः । हेतुभिर्निश्चयः सोऽपि निश्चयान्तः स्मृतो यथा ॥ वा. ४.७९ सादृश्यात्प्रतिपत्तुः संशयः ससंदेहः । वा. का. ३ <headword>सामान्य</headword>

सामान्यम् Sāmānyam : Equal :

The word sāmānya (samana ṣyañ) literally means equality or sameness between two or more things. Samāna is recognised as the common property existing between different objects. As a rhetorical figure Sāmānya signifes the common relation of two things due to their basic similarity represented by equal qualities. Here one object or thing appears as identical with the other on account of close resemblance. Therefore, it is Sāmānya when two or more things appear very much identical and no difference whatsoever between them is discernible. Such equality is not factual or categorical but purely based on poetic imagery.

The present figure is based on similitude, but there is neither concealment (as we find it in Apahnuti) nor mistake (as we find it in Bhrāntimān). In Mīlita the better qualities are superseded by inferior qualities, but here in Sāmanya both the prastuta (the subject in hand) and the aprastuta (the standard of comparison) are equal in quality. Sāmānya is basically a variety of Tadguṇa.

Definitions

प्रस्तुतस्य यदन्येन गुणसाम्यविवक्षया ऐकात्म्यं बध्यते योगात् तत् सामान्यमिति स्मृतम् ॥ का. प्र. २०२.१३४ प्रस्तुतस्यान्येन गुणसाम्यादैकात्म्यं सामान्यम् । अ. स. ७२ सामान्यं यदि सादृश्याद् भेद एव न लक्ष्यते । च. ५.३४ साधारणगुणयोगाद् यत्र प्रकृतस्य वस्तु संवलितम् । न विभावयितुं शक्यं तत् सामान्यं समाख्यातम् ॥ ए. ८.६४ सामान्यं गुणसाम्येन यत्र वस्त्वन्तरैकता । प्र. य. ८.१३४ सामान्यं प्रकृतस्यान्यतादात्म्यं सदृशैर्गुणैः । सा. १०.८९ सामान्यं यदि सादृश्याद् विशेषो नोपलक्ष्यते । कु. १४७ प्रत्यक्षविषयस्यापि वस्तुनो बलवत्सजातीयग्रहणकृतं तद्भिन्नत्वेनाग्रहणं सामान्यम् । र. ३

<headword>सार</headword>

सारः Sāraḥ : Climax :

The word sāra (used both as noun and adjective) means excellence, supreme, sum and substance etc. When the things to be described are exhibited as gradually stepping forward in essence or some objects are put one after another according to their merit in a comparatively higher order, it is Sāra. Most of the rhetoricians accept the following definition: Sāra implies gradual heightening of excellence of the things put in a proper order of sequence. But Jagannātha and Jayaratha think that the reverse process (ie gradual degree of deficiency) may also be taken as instances of Sāra. Therefore, in English it may be termed as Climax as well as anti-Climax.

The figure Vardhamānaka defined by Śobhākara is no other than Sāra. The figures known as Ekāvalī, Kāraṇamālā, Sāra and Mālādīpaka bear the same basic feature that in each of them there is a chain of things put in an order. Therefore, scholars like Jayaratha and Jagannātha have raised the question-whether these alaṃkāras ought to be recognised separately or not. On this problem both are unanimous on the point that these four form a class of figures like some other classes (such as Rūpaka and Pariṇāma).

eg 1. madhuraṃ madhu tasmācca sudhā tasyāḥ kaver vacaḥ मधुरं मधु तस्माच्च सुधा तस्याः कवेर्वचः Honey is sweet, sweeter than honey is nectar, But even than that poetry is sweeter.

2. dānaṃ vittādṛtaṃ vācaḥ kīrti-dharmau tathāyuṣaḥ. paropakaraṇaṃ kāyād asārāt sāram uddharet. दानं वित्तादृतं वाचः / कीर्तिधर्मौ तथायुषः । परोपकरणं कायाद् / असारात् सारमुद्धरेत् ॥ Charity is better than wealth, truth than words of strife So also fame and virtue better than long life; Philanthropy better than this frame mundane. From all worthless things the essence has to be taken.

Definitions

यत्र यथासमुदायाद्यथेकदेशं क्रमेण गुणवदिति । निर्धार्यते परावधि निरतिशयं तद् भवेत् सारम् ॥ रु. का. ७.९६ उत्तरोत्तरमुत्कर्षो भवेत् सारः परावधिः । का. प्र. १९०.१२३ उत्तरोत्तरमुत्कर्षः सारः । अ. स. ५६ समुदायाद् उत्कृष्टोत्कृष्टनिर्धारणं सारम् । वा. ५३ सारो नाम पदोत्कर्षः सारता चेद् यथोत्तरम् । च. ५.८८ वस्तुस्पृहनीयत्वे विश्रान्तिं चेदद्यथोत्तरम् तनुते । सारो नाम तदानीं कथितोऽलंकारः सारज्ञैः। ए. ८.४८ उत्तरोत्तरमुत्कर्षो वस्तुनः सार उच्यते। सा. १०.८८ यत्र निर्धारितात् सारात् सारं सारं ततस्ततः । निर्धार्यते यथाशक्ति तत् सारमिति कथ्यते ॥ वा. का. ४.१२३ उत्तरोत्तरं यत्र सारोत्कर्षः सः सारः । अ. शे. ३७ उत्तरोत्तरमुत्कर्षः सार इत्यभिधीयते । कु. १०५ सैव संसर्गस्योत्कृष्टाभावरूपत्वे सारः । र. ३

<headword>सूक्ष्म</headword>

सूक्ष्मम् Sūkṣmam : Subtle :

The word sūkṣma literally means subtle, artful, minute, precise, delicate, sharp, acute, penetrating etc. As a figure of speech Sūkṣma denotes an ornamental device of literary expression that gives a subtle meaning expressed through the words of gesture and posture (ākāra or ingita). It is called Sūkṣma or subtle because of its artful technique of expression bringing out special poetic charm.

According to Amarakoṣa ākara and ingita are synonymous, but there are others who admit slight difference btween them. According to them ākāra is gesture of the limbs and ingita is movement of the eyes. Daṇḍin acknowledges Hetu, Sūkṣma and Leśa as standard figures of speech (uttama bhuṣaṇa). But Bhāmaha is reluc tant to accept them as literary devices in the domain of poetry. Some later rhetoricians have admitted that the intended meaning expressed by the subtle device of Sūkṣma is really charming and it can be apprehended only by an intelligent reader.

It may be argued that the subtle sense implied in Sūkṣma is a kind of beautiful idea expressed in a charming way.

eg 1 saṃketa-kālamanasaṃ viṭaṃ jñātvā vidagdhayā. hasan netrārpitākūtaṃ līlāpadmaṃ nimīlitam. संकेतकालमनसं विटं ज्ञात्वा विदग्धया । हसन्नेत्रार्पिताकूतं लीलापद्मं निमीलितम् ॥ When the lady came to know of her paramour, Who wanted a hint about the meeting of their, Whose eagerness through his smiling expressed, She made her fashion lotus enfolded.

Definitions

इङ्गिताकारलक्ष्योऽर्थः सौक्ष्म्यात् सूक्ष्म इति स्मृतः । का. २.२६० यत्रायुक्तिमदर्थं गमयति शब्दो निजार्थसंबद्धम् । अर्थान्तरमुपपत्तिमदिति तत् संजायते सूक्ष्मम् ॥ रु. का. ७.९८ इङ्गिताकारलक्ष्योऽर्थः सूक्ष्मः सूक्ष्मगुणस्तु सः । सूक्ष्मः प्रत्यक्षतः सूक्ष्मोऽप्रत्यक्ष इति भिद्यते ॥ स. ३.२१ कुतोऽपि लक्षितः सूक्ष्मऽप्यर्थोऽन्यस्मै प्रकाश्यते । धर्मेण केनचिद् यत्र तत्सूक्ष्मं परिचक्षते । का. प्र. १८९.१२२-२३ संलक्षितसूक्ष्मार्थप्रकाशनं सूक्ष्मम् । अ. स. ७६ असंलक्षितसूक्ष्मार्थप्रकाशः सूक्ष्म उच्यते । प्र. ८.२६० अथ वल्गद्गूढार्थप्रतीत्यलंकारलक्षणं भावि । गदितमिदं संलक्षितसूक्ष्मार्थस्य प्रकाशनं सूक्ष्मम् । ए. ८.६९ इङ्गिताकारलक्ष्येऽर्थे सूक्ष्मम् । अ. वा. ४३ संलक्षितस्तु सूक्ष्मोऽर्थ आकारेणेङ्गितेन वा । कस्यापि सूच्यते भङ्ग्या यत्र सूक्ष्मं तदुच्यते ॥ सा. १०.९२ सूक्ष्मं पराशयाभिज्ञेतरसाकूतचेष्टितम् । कु. १५१

<headword>स्मरण</headword>

स्मरणम् Smaraṇam : Recollection :

Smaraṇa (√smṛ ana < anat) means remembrance or recollection. Of the two classes of knowledge (ie buddhi or jñāna) in Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika philosophy one is anubhava or any kind of knowledge other than smaraṇa or recollection. The difference between these two lies in the fact-when we know something or get an idea about an object, (for example : I see the moon or I understand it) such knowing leaves an idea-based impression in our mind, and this impression if awakened by any means, brings some sort of recollection of the object previously known. Therefore, in brief, anubhava is direct knowledge and smaraṇa is indirect knowledge through previous apprehension. When the impression of an object previously apprehended gives rise to knowledge of it again, it is called recollection or remembrance (smṛti or smaraṇa).

The figure of speech Smaraṇa occurs when there is recollection of an object (previously known) through the perception or mere apprehension of a similar object at present. Here both the objects should be mutually identical by virtue of their merit. Rudraṭa and his followers are of opinion that such recollection comes through direct perception of another identical thing. But Ruyyaka, Viśvanātha and their followers argue that not only perception but also other types of apprehension such as knowledge through dream or any specially known object (pratyabhijñāna) or feeling of insecurity (adṛṣṭa-cintā) may give rise to recollection. Mammaṭa explains that such recollection happens through perception only, but others admit that it may occur through inference or verbal knowledge also. Kuntaka says that in Smaraṇa one recollects something through dream, psychological reaction, observation of memorable objects of any kind of similar or even contrastful object.

eg 1. aravindam idaṃ vīkṣya khelat-khañjanamañjulam. smarāmi vadanaṃ tasyāś cāru-cañcala-locanam. अरविन्दमिदं वीक्ष्य खेलत्खञ्जन-मञ्जुलम् । स्मरामि वदनं तस्याश्चारु-चञ्चल-लोचनम् ॥ As I see the lotus charming with sportive wagtail I remember my love's face with eyes charming and fickle.

Here the lover reminisces the beautiful eyes of the beloved lady as he looks at the lotus. Both the eyes and the lotus are very charming due to their natural beauty. Due to sportive and amorous glances fickleness adds special charm to the eyes of the young maiden and the presence of wagtail bird near the lotus makes it swing and, therefore, fickle. Here similitude between the two is implied.

Definitions

वस्तुविशेषं दृष्ट्वा प्रतिपत्ता स्मरति यत्र तत्सदृशम् । कालान्तरानुभूतं वस्त्वन्तरमित्यदः स्मरणम् ॥ रु. का. ८.१०९ सदृशादिष्टचिन्तादेरनुभूतार्थवेदनम् । स्मरणं प्रत्यभिज्ञानस्वप्नाद् याति न तद्बहिः । स. ३.४० यथानुभवमर्थस्य दृष्टे तत्सदृशो स्मृतिः स्मरणम् । का. प्र. १९९ सदृशानुभवादन्यस्मृतिः स्मरणम् । अ. स. १४ सदृशदर्शनात् स्मरणं स्मृतिः । वा. ४० सदृशदर्शनात् स्मरणं स्मृतिः । हे. का. ६.२४ सदृशानुभवात् स्मरणे स्मृतिः । च. १९ सदृशं सदृशानुभवात् यत्र स्मर्यते तत् स्मरणम् । ए. ८.५ सदृशानुभवाद् अन्यस्मृतिः स्मरणमुच्यते । प्र. ८.४७ सदृशानुभवाद् वस्तुस्मृतिः स्मरणमुच्यते । सा. १०.२६ स्मृतिः सादृश्यमूला या वस्त्वन्तरसमाश्रया । स्मरणालंकृतिः सा स्यादव्यङ्गत्वविशेषिता ॥ चि. १५६ सादृश्यज्ञानोद्बुद्धसंस्कारप्रयोज्यं स्मरणं स्मरणालंकारः । र. २

<headword>स्वभावोक्ति</headword>

स्वभावोक्तिः Svabhāvoktiḥ : Natural Description :

It is sva bhāva ukti. The word svabhāva means one's own nature, ukti means expression or statement. Here svabhāva rhetorically signifies charming and captivating nature of a thing represented in an artistic way by the poet who is believed to possess the inner vision to observe the minute refinements of all things in their natural form, colour, action or appearance under different circumstances. Therefore, this figure of speech signifies any kind of poetical expression regarding the description of action, nature or circumstances of a thing suited to its character or description of a thing in its own nature or statement of exact nature of things.

From Bhāmaha's statement it is clear that there was a controversy whether Svabhāvokti should be considered a figure or not. But most of the later rhetoricians have accepted that charming description of the nature of things by the poet gives an artistic flavour to our taste. Daṇḍin informs us about another tradition which establishes that Svabhāvokti, in the limited sense, is just a figure of thought, but, in the wider sense, all figurative expression is either Svabhāvokti (Natural Description ) or Vakrokti (Artistic Description). Ruyyaka explains that mere statement of facts or description of nature may not be charming, therefore, Svabhāvokti is poetically charming description of the actions of children, women birds, animals etc who are, by nature, very attractive, effective and pleasing to all under normal circumstances. For example such statement includes the common natural phenomena like the timidity of the deer, bashfulness of girls, simplicity of children, ferocity of beasts etc.

This figure is otherwise known as Vārta or Jāti. It is one of the oldest figures in rhetoric. Daṇḍin has made a very broad division of alaṃkaras into two sets- Svabhāvokti and Vakrokti (Natural Description and Artistic Representation). Bhoja adds one more to it and that is Rasokti (Suggestive Expression). Svabhāvokti, according to Daṇḍin, is preferable to all classes of poets, but contrarily Bhamaha and Kuntaka give all credit to Vakrokti in poetic diction and value it as the basic principle inherent in all figurative speech.

eg.  drumāḥ sapuṣpāḥ salilaṃ sapadmaṃ striyaḥ sakāmāḥ pavanaḥ sugandhiḥ. sukhāḥ pradoṣā divasāśca ramyāḥ sarvaṃ priye cārutaraṃ vasante. द्रुमाः सपुष्पाः सलिलं सपद्मं / स्त्रियः सकामाः पवनः सुगन्धिः । सुखाः प्रदोषा दिवसाश्च रम्याः / सर्वं प्रिये चारुतरं वसन्ते ॥ Trees appear in full bloom, waters lotus-fragrant, Women full of love, breeze soothing, Evenings charming, days pleasant, Sweet love, everything is decent in spring.

Definitions

यथास्वरूपकथनं स्वभावोक्तिः प्रकीर्तिता । यथास्वरूपकथनं वार्तेति परिकीर्तितम् ॥ वि. १४.११ नानावस्थं पदार्थानां रूपं साक्षाद् विवृण्वती । स्वभावोक्तिश्च जातिश्चेताद्या सालंकृतिर्यथा ॥ का. २.८ अर्थस्य तदवस्थत्वं स्वभावोऽभिहितः । भा. का. २.९३ स्वभाव एव भावानां स्वरूपमभिधीयते । अ. ३४४.३ क्रियायां संप्रवृत्तस्य हेवाकानां निबन्धनम् । कस्यचिन्मृगडिम्भादेः स्वभावोक्तिरुदाहृता ॥ का. प्र. १६८.१११ सूक्ष्मवस्तुस्वभावस्य यथावद्वर्णनं स्वभावोक्तिः । अ. स. ७९ स्वभावोक्तिः स्वभावस्य जात्यादिषु च वर्णनम् ॥ च. ५.१०७ वस्तुस्वभाव उच्चैर्यः स्यात् सूक्ष्मो यथावदेकस्य । यद् वा वर्णनमेषा कथिता कविभिः स्वभावोक्तिः ॥ ए. ८.७२ स्वभावोक्तिरसौ चारु यथावद्वस्तुवर्णनम् । प्र. ८.१२८ स्वभावोक्तिर्दुरूहार्थस्वक्रियारूपवर्णनम् । सा. १०.९२ यस्य वस्तुनो यत्स्वभावता तदाख्यानं स्वभावः । अ. शे. ३७ स्वभावोक्तिः स्वभावस्य जात्यादिकस्य वर्णनम् । कु. १६० Key to Sanskrit spelling and pronunciation

All Sanskrit words are italicized. Commonly accepted phonetic symbols are used.

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Abbreviations

अलंकारसर्वस्वम् (1100-1150 AD)

(काव्य) अलंकारसारसंग्रह (750-800 AD) एकावली (1285-1325 AD ) काव्यादर्श (650-700 AD)

वा. का. वाग्भटकाव्यानुशासनम् (1358-AD )

कुवलयानन्दः (15541626 AD) चन्द्रालोकः ( 1200-1250 AD)

चित्रमीमांसा (1554-1626 AD) नाट्याशास्त्रम् (100-300 AD)

प्रतापरुद्रयशोभूषणम् (1300-1325 AD) भामहकाव्यालंकार (700-750 AD)

विष्णुधर्मोत्तरपुराणम् (550-650 AD)

हेमचन्द्रकाव्यानुशासनम् (1136-1143 AD)

शृङ्गारप्रकाश: (1030-1050 AD) साहित्यदर्पणम् (1300-1384 AD )

Gaekwad's Oriental Series

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Kashi Sanskrit Series

Nirnaya Sagar Press

Oriental Institute, Baroda

Śaka era

Vikrama Samvat

Google

Original from

UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN Bibliography

1.

Agnipurāṇam ed by Pañchānan Tarkaratna, Vangavasi, Calcutta, 1812 SE.

2. Alamkārakaustubha of Visvesvara Pandit, NSP, Bombay,

1898.

3.

Alamkārakaustubha of Kavi Karṇapūra: ed by Ravisankar Nagar, Delhi, 1981.

4. Alamkārasekhara of Keśavamiśra ed. by Anantarām Śāstri,

201

1927

5. Alamkārasarvasva of Räjänaka Ruyyaka ed by Gaurināth Pathak, 1980 VS.

6.

Ekavali of Srividyadhara: ed by Kamalāśankar Trivedi, Govt. Oriental Book Depo, Bombay, 1903.

7.

8.

Kavyādarśa of Dandin; ed by S. K. Belvalkar, Poona, 1924 Kavyaprakāśa of Mammața ed by Jhalakikar, Bombay, 1901.

12.

13.

9. Kavyalamkārasūtra with the Golss by Pandit Vāmana : ed by Ratnagopala Bhaṭṭa, Benares Sanskrit Series, Benares, 1980.

14.

15.

10.

Kāvyālamkāra of Bhāmha : ed by P. V. Nāganātha Šāstri, 2nd ed, Benares, 1970.

11.

Kavyalamkāra of Rudrata with the commentary of Namisādhu : ed by Rāmadeva Śukla, Vidyabhavan Samskṛta Granthamala No. 136, Benares, 1966.

Kävyānusāsana of Vägbhaṭa: ed by Pandit Śivadatta and Käsinātha Panduranga Parab, KSS, No. 43, Bombay, 1915. Kävyālamkārasārasamgraha of Udbhata : ed by K. Ramaswami Śāstri. GOS, 1931.

Kuvalayananda of Appayya Dikṣita ed by Vasudeva Śarman, 4th ed, Bombay, 1917.

Kävyānusāsana of Acharya Hemachandra: ed by Rasiklal C. Parikh, Bombay, 1938.

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Original from

UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN 202

16.

17.

18.

19.

21.

A Handbook of Classical Sanskrit Rhetoric

Chandraloka of Jayadeva with the commentary of Pradyotana Bhattacharya Bhattacharya : KSS, Haridāsa Sanskṛta Granthamālā, No. 75.

25.

26.

Citramīmāṁsā of Appayya Dikṣita: Kävyamālā 38, 1907. Natyāsāstra of Bharata : ed by Ramakrishna Kavi, GOS. No. LXVIII., OIB, Baroda, 1934.

20. Rasagangadhara of Paṇḍitarāja Jagannātha : ed by Pandit Durgaprasād and Vasudeva Śarma, Bombay, 1916.

Vakroktijivita of Kuntaka: ed by K. Krishnamoorthy. Karnatak University, Dharwar. 1977.

22. Vägbhaṭālamkāra of Vāgbhaṭa: ed by Kedarnath Śāstri NSP, Bombay, 1916.

23. Vişnudharmottarapurāṇa: Venkatesvara Press, Bombay, 1834

Prataparudra-yasobhūsaṇa of Vidyānātha: with the commentary of Ratnapana of Kumārasvämined by K. S. Trivedi, Bombay, 1909.

SE.

24. Śrngaraprākāśa of Mahārāja Bhojarāja: ed by G. R. Josyer, Vols. I-III, Mysore, 1955-69..

Sarasvatīkaṇthābharaṇa of Bhojaraja : ed by Anundoram Borooah. Calcutta, 1884.

Sahityadarpana of Visvanātha : ed by Kriṣṇamohan Śāstri.

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